Communicate! Kathleen S. Verderber Northern Kentucky University

Rudolph F. Verderber Distinguished Teaching Professor of Communication,

University of Cincinnati

Deanna D. Sellnow University of Kentucky

13

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Kathleen S. Verderber, Rudolph F. Verderber, and Deanna Sellnow

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D isclaim

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iii

Brief Contents

Contents iv

Preface xiii

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives 1

Chapter 2 Perception of Self and Others 23

Chapter 3 Communicating Verbally 47

Chapter 4 Communicating Nonverbally 66

Chapter 5 Listening and Responding 87

PART II INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Chapter 6 Communicating Across Cultures 111

Chapter 7 Understanding Interpersonal Relationships 133

Chapter 8 Communication Skills in Interpersonal Relationships: Providing Emotional Support, Managing Privacy, and Negotiating Confl ict 157

Appendix Interviewing 185

PART III GROUP COMMUNICATION

Chapter 9 Communicating in Groups 207

Chapter 10 Problem Solving in Groups 224

PART IV PUBLIC SPEAKING

Chapter 11 Developing and Researching a Speech Topic 250

Chapter 12 Organizing Your Speech 275

Chapter 13 Adapting Verbally and Visually 304

Chapter 14 Overcoming Speech Apprehension by Practicing Delivery 332

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking 363

Chapter 16 Persuasive Speaking 388

References 419

Index 430

iv

Brief Contents iii

Preface xiii

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives 1

The Communication Process 3

Participants 3 Messages 3 Context 4 Channels 5 Interference (Noise) 5 Feedback 7 A Model of the Basic Communication Process 8 Communication Settings 8

Communication Principles 10

Communication Has Purpose 10 Communication Is Continuous 11 Communication Messages Vary in Conscious Thought 11 Communication Is Relational 11 Communication Is Guided by Culture 12 Communication Has Ethical Implications 14 Communication Is Learned 15

Increasing Our Communication Competence 15

Develop Communication Skills Improvement Goals 18

Chapter 2 Perception of Self and Others 23

The Perception Process 24

Attention and Selection 24 Organization of Stimuli 25 Interpretation of Stimuli 26

Perceptions of Self: Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 26

Forming and Maintaining a Self-Concept 26

Developing and Maintaining Self-Esteem 28

The Infl uence of Gender and Culture on Self-Perceptions 30 Changing Self-Perceptions 31 Accuracy and Distortion of Self-Perceptions 31 The Effects of Self-Perceptions on Communication 34

Contents

v Contents

Presenting Self to Others 35

Self-Monitoring 36 Social Construction of Self 36

Perception of Others 37

Observing Others 38 Using Stereotypes 38 Emotional State 39 Perceiving Others’ Messages 40 Improving the Accuracy of Social Perceptions 41

Chapter 3 Communicating Verbally 47

The Nature and Purposes of Language 48

Purposes of Language 49 The Relationship Between Language and Meaning 49 Cultural and Gender Infl uences on Language Use 51

Improving Language Skills 52

Use Clear Language 52 Use Language That Makes Your Messages Memorable 55 Use Linguistic Sensitivity 58

Chapter 4 Communicating Nonverbally 66

Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication 68

Types of Nonverbal Communication 69

Use of Body: Kinesics 69 Use of Voice: Vocalics 71 Use of Space: Proxemics 73 Use of Time: Chronemics 75 Self-Presentation Cues 76

Guidelines for Improving Nonverbal Communication 79

Sending Nonverbal Messages 79 Interpreting Nonverbal Messages 82

Chapter 5 Listening and Responding 87

What Is Listening? 88

Types of Listening 88

Appreciative Listening 89 Discriminative Listening 89 Comprehensive Listening 90 Empathic Listening 90 Critical Listening 90

vi Contents

Steps in the Listening Process 91

Attending 91 Understanding 93 Remembering 97 Evaluating 98 Responding 100

Conversation and Analysis 102

PART II INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Chapter 6 Communicating Across Cultures 111

Culture and Communication 112

Intercultural Communication 112 Dominant Cultures and Co-Cultures 113 Cultural Identity 116

Identifying Cultural Norms and Values 117

Individualism–Collectivism 117 Uncertainty Avoidance 121 Power Distance 121 Masculinity–Femininity 122

Barriers to Effective Intercultural Communication 123

Anxiety 123 Assuming Similarity or Difference 123 Ethnocentrism 124 Stereotypes and Prejudice 125 Incompatible Communication Codes 126 Incompatible Norms and Values 127

Intercultural Communication Competence 127

Adopt Correct Attitudes 127 Acquire Knowledge About Other Cultures 128 Develop Culture-Specifi c Skills 129

Chapter 7 Understanding Interpersonal Relationships 133

Types of Relationships 134

Acquaintances 134 Friends 136 Close Friends or Intimates 137

Disclosure and Feedback in Relationship Life Cycles 141

The Open Pane 141 The Secret Pane 142 The Blind Pane 142 The Unknown Pane 142

Communication in the Stages of Relationships 143

Beginning Relationships 143 Developing Relationships 144

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Maintaining Relationships 145 Deteriorating and Dissolving Relationships 148

Dialectics in Interpersonal Relationships 149

Relational Dialectics 149 Managing Dialectical Tensions 151

Conversation and Analysis 152

Chapter 8 Communication Skills in Interpersonal Relationships: Providing Emotional Support, Managing Privacy, and Negotiating Confl ict 157

Comforting Messages 158

Skills for Comforting 158 Gender and Cultural Considerations in Comforting 160

Managing Privacy and Disclosure in Relationships 161

Effects on Intimacy 164 Expectations of Reciprocity 164 Information Co-Ownership 165 Guidelines and Communication Strategies for Disclosure 165 Communication Strategies for Managing Privacy 171

Negotiating Different Needs, Wants, and Preferences in Relationships 172

Communicating Personal Needs, Wants, and Preferences: Passive, Aggressive, and Assertive Behavior 173

Cultural Variations in Passive, Aggressive, and Assertive Behavior 174

Managing Confl ict in Relationships 176

Styles of Confl ict 176 Guidelines for Collaboration 178

Conversation and Analysis 179

Appendix Interviewing 185

Structuring Interviews 186

The Interview Protocol 186 Effective Questions 187 Order and Time Constraints in Interview Protocols 188

Guidelines for Conducting Information Interviews 189

Doing Research About Interviewees 189 Conducting an Information Interview 190

Conducting Employment Interviews 191

Preparing for the Interview 191 Conducting the Interview 191

Interviewing Strategies for Job Seekers 192

Applying for the Job 192 Electronic Cover Letters and Résumés 194 Preparing to Be Interviewed 196 Guidelines for Job Interviewees 197

viii Contents

Conversation and Analysis 198

Following Up After the Interview 200

Strategies for Interviews with the Media 200

Before the Interview 201 During the Interview 201

PART III GROUP COMMUNICATION

Chapter 9 Communicating in Groups 207

Characteristics of Healthy Groups 208

Healthy Groups Have Ethical Goals 208 Healthy Groups Are Interdependent 210 Healthy Groups Are Cohesive 210 Healthy Groups Develop and Abide by Productive Norms 210 Healthy Groups Are Accountable 212 Healthy Groups Are Synergetic 213

Stages of Group Development 213

Forming 213 Storming 214 Norming 214 Performing 214 Adjourning 214

Types of Groups 215

Families 215 Social Friendship Groups 216 Support Groups 216 Interest Groups 217 Service Groups 217 Work Groups 217

Evaluating Group Dynamics 219

Chapter 10 Problem Solving in Groups 224

The Problem-Solving Process 225

Step One: Identify and Defi ne the Problem 226 Step Two: Analyze the Problem 226 Step Three: Determine Criteria for Judging Solutions 227 Step Four: Identify Alternative Solutions 228 Step Five: Evaluate Solutions and Decide 229 Step Six: Implement the Agreed-Upon Solution 230

Shared Leadership 230

Task Roles 230 Maintenance Roles 231 Procedural Roles 232

ix Contents

Making Meetings Effective 235

Guidelines for Meeting Leaders 235 Guidelines for Meeting Participants 238

Conversation and Analysis 239

Communicating Group Solutions 242

Written Formats 242 Oral Formats 243 Virtual Reports 243

PART IV PUBLIC SPEAKING

Chapter 11 Developing and Researching a Speech Topic 250

Identify Topics 252

List Subjects 252 Brainstorm and Concept Map for Topic Ideas 253

Analyze the Audience 254

Identify Audience Analysis Information Needs 254 Gather Audience Data 255

Analyze the Setting 257

Select a Topic 258

Write a Speech Goal 259

Identify Your General Goal 259 Phrase a Specifi c Goal Statement 259

Locate and Evaluate Information Sources 261

Personal Knowledge, Experience, and Observation 262 Secondary Research 262 Primary Research 264

Evaluate Sources 265

Identify and Select Relevant Information 267

Factual Statements 267 Expert Opinions 268 Elaborations 268

Draw Information from Multiple Cultural Perspectives 269

Record Information 269

Prepare Research Cards 269

Cite Sources in Speeches 270

Chapter 12 Organizing Your Speech 275

Developing the Body of the Speech 276

Determining Main Points 276 Writing a Thesis Statement 279

x Contents

Outlining the Body of the Speech 280 Selecting and Outlining Supporting Material 284 Preparing Section Transitions and Signposts 286

Creating the Introduction 287

Gaining Attention 287 Establishing Listener Relevance 289 Stating the Thesis 290 Establishing Your Credibility 290 Setting a Tone 290 Creating a Bond of Goodwill 291

Crafting the Conclusion 291

Summary 292 Clincher 292

Listing Sources 294

Reviewing the Outline 296

Chapter 13 Adapting Verbally and Visually 304

Adapting to Your Audience Verbally 305

Relevance 305 Common Ground 306 Speaker Credibility 307 Information Comprehension and Retention 309 Adapting to Cultural Differences 312

Adapting to Audiences Visually 315

Types of Presentational Aids 316 Criteria for Choosing Presentational Aids 323 Designing Effective Presentational Aids 323

Methods for Displaying Presentational Aids 326

Posters 326 Whiteboards or Chalkboards 326 Flip Charts 327 Handouts 327 Document Cameras 328 CD/VCR/DVD Players and LCD Projectors 328 Computer-Mediated Slide Show 328

Chapter 14 Overcoming Speech Apprehension by Practicing Delivery 332

Public Speaking Apprehension 333

Symptoms and Causes 333 Managing Your Apprehension 334

Characteristics of an Effective Delivery Style 336

Use a Conversational Style 336 Be Animated 336

Effective Use of Your Voice 337

Speak Intelligibly 337 Use Vocal Expressiveness 338

xi Contents

Effective Use of Your Body 341

Facial Expressions 341 Gestures 342 Movement 342 Eye Contact 343 Posture 343 Poise 343 Appearance 344

Delivery Methods 345

Impromptu Speeches 346 Scripted Speeches 346 Extemporaneous Speeches 346

Rehearsal 346

Preparing Speaking Notes 347 Handling Presentational Aids 347 Recording, Analyzing, and Refi ning Speech Delivery 349

Criteria for Evaluating Speeches 351

Sample Informative Speech 353

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking 363

Characteristics of Effective Informative Speaking 364

Intellectually Stimulating 364 Relevant 365 Creative 365 Memorable 366 Address Diverse Learning Styles 367

Methods of Informing 368

Description 368 Defi nition 369 Comparison and Contrast 369 Narration 370 Demonstration 370

Common Informative Speech Frameworks 371

Process Speech Frameworks 371 Expository Speech Frameworks 372

Sample Informative Speech 379

Chapter 16 Persuasive Speaking 388

How We Process Persuasive Messages: The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) 389

Writing Persuasive Speech Goals as Propositions 390

Types of Persuasive Goals 390 Tailoring Your Proposition to Your Audience 391

xii Contents

Developing Arguments (Logos) That Support Your Proposition 393

Finding Reasons to Use as Main Points 393 Selecting Evidence to Support Reasons 394 Types and Tests of Arguments 395 Avoiding Fallacies in Your Reasons and Argument 397

Increasing Audience Involvement Through Emotional Appeals (Pathos) 398

Cueing Your Audience Through Credibility (Ethos): Demonstrating Goodwill 400

Motivating Your Audience to Act Through Incentives 401

Using Incentives to Satisfy Unmet Needs 401 Creating Incentives That Outweigh Costs 403

Organizational Patterns for Persuasive Speeches 403

Statement of Reasons 404 Comparative Advantages 404 Criteria Satisfaction 404 Refutative 405 Problem-Solution 405 Problem-Cause-Solution 406 Motivated Sequence 406

Sample Persuasive Speech 409

REFERENCES 419

INDEX 431

xiii

Preface

We are delighted to welcome Deanna D. Sellnow, Ph.D., to the author team for Communicate! A proven textbook author, Dr. Sellnow is the Gifford Blyton Endowed Professor and Director of Undergraduate Studies in Communication at the University of Kentucky. Her scholarly interests include instructional communi- cation, educational assessment, popular culture, and gender communication. A past president of the Central States Communication Association, she has taught a wide variety of communication courses and enjoys directing basic communication courses. Dr. Sellnow’s voice blends well with ours, as her writing has an appealing conversational quality that keeps the reader’s interest. While the contributions she has made to this book will not be evident to those of you who are reading the book for the fi rst time, those of you familiar with Dr Sellnow’s work will recognize and appreciate her infl uence. We look forward to a long and successful collaboration.

To Students Congratulations! You are beginning to study communication, a subject that is impor- tant and useful to you in all parts of your life. When you want to establish or improve a relationship, when you need to work with others on a group project for class or for a cause you support, or when you are required to make a presentation at work, your success will depend on how effective you are at communicating in those settings.

Most of you have probably never studied communication formally. Rather, you’ve learned the communication skills and strategies you use every day informally, in your home and from your friends. By taking this communication course and learning tested communication skills, you’ll strengthen your existing abilities and improve your rela- tionships. You can improve the likelihood that your group project is successful by understanding the predictable patterns of group process and communication. And you can more effectively overcome stage fright and give better presentations when you have studied public speaking and know how to plan and deliver a formal speech. So again, we say, congratulations! You’ll fi nd that this course will be instantly relevant to your day-to-day living. We are confi dent that by the end of this term you will be glad you spent your time and money on it.

The textbook you’re reading, Communicate!, was one of the fi rst college texts about human communication. A lot has changed since Rudy wrote that fi rst edition. Over the years we have worked to make sure that students, like you, have a book that is easy and enjoyable to read and learn from. We have also worked hard to make sure that the information, theories, and skills discussed and relevant to the real relation- ships and communication situations you face. So every three years we examine the book in light of how the world has changed. Just ten years ago, cell phones were not in wide use, texting wasn’t a verb, many social networking sites and YouTube didn’t exist, and “to twitter” simply meant to speak excitedly about something. Despite these huge changes in the way we communicate, this textbook is as up-to-date and useful as the fi rst edition was because we work hard to make sure that the information we present refl ects what it takes to be an effective communicator today.

xiv Preface

Communicate! is written with six specifi c goals in mind:

1. To explain important communication concepts, frameworks, and theories that have been consistently supported by careful research so that you can understand the conceptual foundations of human communication.

2. To teach specifi c communication skills that research has shown facilitate effective relationships.

3. To describe and encourage you to adopt the ethical frameworks that can guide competent communication.

4. To increase awareness of how culture affects communication practices. 5. To stimulate critical and creative thinking about the concepts and skills you learn. 6. To provide tools for practice and assessment that enable you to monitor how well

you are learning communication concepts and skills.

So we hope you will read and enjoy this textbook and that it will be a resource you will want to maintain in your personal library. We appreciate it when students who are using our text take time to share their reactions to the book with us. So we encour- age you to email us with questions, comments, and suggestions. Our email address is Communicate.Authors@cengage.com.

To Instructors Thank you for considering and using Communicate! We are grateful for the colleagues who have used previous editions of this text and to those of you who are considering using this edition. We believe that the revisions we have made will surprise and delight those of you who have used Communicate! in the past. We also believe that those of you who are looking for a different textbook will fi nd Communicate! is precisely the learning tool that will encourage your students to read and think about the important role of communication in their lives.

As we prepared this edition, we were acutely aware of how our students’ lives are changing and how these changes are infl uencing their learning process and the nature of communication in their lives. So we have revised the text with these new realities in mind while at the same time retaining the hallmarks that have made this textbook useful to students and instructors in the past. And, as with every new edi- tion, we have incorporated the suggestions of colleagues who use the text, and we’ve reviewed the latest scholarship so that this new edition refl ects what users want and what recent scholarship has discovered about human communication. In the sections that follow, we detail what’s new and highlight the continuing features that have made Communicate! a perennial favorite with both students and faculty.

New to This Edition • Pop Comm! articles, found in each chapter, highlight how the communication

concepts addressed in this book play out in popular culture. Each article demon- strates the universal and omnipresent role of communication in our culture and how communication practices change and evolve. Many articles spotlight how the uses of new technologies are changing basic communication processes. Topics include online mourning, the ghostwriting of online dating profi les, managing privacy on social networking sites, the dark side of online social groups, and the persuasive messages of infomercials.

• Relevant Communicate! pedagogy has been revamped to facilitate active learning and assessment. Chapter-opening questions prompt students to consider what

xv Preface

they already know and to engage with the main ideas of each chapter as they read (pre-assessment). Review questions in the margins throughout the chapters and activities at the ends of chapters encourage students to think critically about what they’re learning (formative assessment). And end-of-part and online quizzes help students determine how well they’ve absorbed chapter content (summative assessment).

• New and updated examples throughout the text highlight student-friendly topics, such as pop culture and new technologies.

• Chapter 1, “Communication Perspectives,” now includes a section on communi- cation settings that distinguishes among intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group, and public communication.

• Chapter 2, “Perception of Self and Others,” introduces the important role media images play in distorting one’s self-perception, the relationship between self- perceptions and communication apprehension, and how perception is shaped via images constructed on social networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace.

• Refl ecting the fact that today we rely heavily on computer-mediated communica- tion, Chapter 4, “Communicating Nonverbally,” includes a discussion of how nonverbal messages that clarify meaning and convey emotions can be communi- cated in online environments.

• Because listening and responding is a foundational element of communica- tion in any setting, we moved the discussion of this topic forward to Chapter 5, “Listening and Responding,” in Part I of the book. This chapter now includes a section on the types of listening, which distinguishes among appreciative, dis- criminative, comprehensive, empathic, and critical listening purposes. In addition, we added a section on responding effectively to public speakers in the form of speech critiques.

• Chapter 6, “Communicating Across Cultures,” has been updated to refl ect what we know today about dominant cultures and co-cultures, including the distinction among sex, gender, and sexual orientation.

• For this edition, we have reworked the two interpersonal chapters, which now focus, fi rst, on understanding relationships and, second, on specifi c skills. Chapter 7, “Understanding Interpersonal Relationships,” walks readers through the types of interpersonal relationships, the role of disclosure and feedback in relationship life cycles, communication in the various relationship stages, and the dialectical tensions inherent in interpersonal relationships. In Chapter 8, “Communication Skills in Interpersonal Relationships,” we describe communication skills for comforting, managing the competing urges between self-disclosure and privacy management, and confl ict management styles.

• Many instructors have indicated that they simply don’t have time to teach the chapter on interviewing in their courses. Still, because we believe effective inter- viewing skills are so important, we have retained the content in the form of an internal appendix, “Interviewing.” So, even if teachers cannot include the con- tent in their courses, students can still benefi t from learning about it on their own. The content of this appendix has been refi ned so that it fi rst focuses on developing good questions and then proposes some guidelines for conducting both informa- tion and employment interviews. Tips for presenting oneself in employment and media interviews are also discussed.

• The unit on group communication has been extensively revised. For this edition, Chapter 9, “Communicating in Groups,” focuses on understanding the character- istics of groups, stages of development, different types of groups, and guidelines for communicating effectively in groups. In Chapter 10, “Problem Solving in

xvi Preface

Groups,” we focus specifi cally on the nature of effective problem solving, includ- ing leadership, member responsibilities, and formats for sharing results with others.

• As in the previous edition, the unit on public speaking continues to describe the process for preparing and presenting public speeches using the Speech Plan Action Steps. The chapters in this part include many important revisions. Chapter 11, “Developing and Researching a Speech Topic,” now includes a discussion of concept mapping as a means by which students can generate topic ideas. In Chapter 12, “Organizing Your Speech,” we added narrative order as a method for arranging main points. Chapter 13, “Adapting Verbally and Visually,” includes a section about addressing diverse learning styles when adapting to an audience. In addition, we expanded the discussion of visual aids to include guidelines for using audio and audiovisual presentational aids. And Chapter 14, “Overcoming Speech Apprehension by Practicing Delivery,” offers an expanded discussion of public speaking apprehension and ways to overcome it.

• New to Chapter 15, “Informative Speaking,” are a discussion of learning styles as they relate to effective informative speaking, revised informative speech critique forms, and a new sample student speech, “Understanding Hurricanes.”

• Finally, in Chapter 16, “Persuasive Speaking,” we have expanded our discussion of reasoning fallacies to include the either-or and straw person fallacies, we have expanded the discussion of organizational patterns to include both the refutative and problem-cause-solution patterns as options, and we offer a new sample stu- dent speech, “Sexual Assault Policy a Must,” which uses the motivated sequence pattern.

Hallmark Features • Communication Skill boxes provide a step-by-step guide for each of the com-

munication skills presented in the text. Each of these boxes includes the defi nition of the skill, a brief description of its use, the steps for enacting the skill, and an example that illustrates the skill. A convenient tear-out chart at the begin- ning of the book provides a summary of all the Communication Skill boxes. The Skill Building activities, adjacent to each Communication Skill box, reinforce and provide an immediate opportunity for students to practice the skills. Students can complete these activities online and then compare their answers with models provided by the authors.

• Conversation and Analysis communication scenarios offer print and video exemplars of important concepts. Transcripts of these conversations appear in the text and online—students can download the transcripts to use for note taking as they view the videos. Once they have analyzed the conversation by answering a series of critical-thinking questions, they can compare their assessments with the authors’.

• The principles of effective speech making are organized into fi ve Speech Plan Action Steps, presented in Chapters 11–14. The activities that accompany each of these action steps guide students through an orderly process that results in better speeches. Communicate!’s online resources provide students with the opportunity to view examples of each activity prepared by other students and to complete many of the action steps with Speech Builder Express. (See the section Student Resources for more about these online resources.)

xvii Preface

• Sample student speeches appear in the text, each accompanied by an audience adap- tation plan, an outline, and a transcript and analysis. Two of the three sample speeches in this edition are new. Students can use their online resources to view videos of these speeches, see the transcript and two different kinds of outlines and sample note cards, prepare their own critiques, and compare their critiques to the authors’.

• In Parts I and II, Communicate On Your Feet speech assignments encourage students to begin building their public-speaking skills immediately while also addressing the needs of instructors who assign prepared speeches throughout the course. In Part IV, these assignments correspond to the speech types discussed in Chapters 15–16. In this edition, we have added a number of new assignments so that each chapter now includes at least one.

• Exercises that were called “Observe and Analyze” and “Test Your Competence” in previous editions are now called Skill Learning Activities and are grouped at the ends of chapters. Some of these exercises challenge students to observe events related to concepts they are learning, use the theories and concepts from the chapter to analyze what happened, and, in some cases, improve what occurred by applying the communication skills they’ve learned. Other activities provide opportunities for students to self-evaluate or practice specifi c skills. Students can use their online resources to complete these activities and download worksheets and data collection forms.

• Self-Reviews appear at the end of each part to encourage students to commit to improving their skills in interpersonal, group, and public communication. In accord with the fi ndings of learning motivation research, students have the opportunity to inventory their current skill levels and set specifi c goals for skill improvement. The Self-Reviews can be completed online and, if requested, emailed to the instructor.

• Diverse Voices articles give voice to the communication experiences of people from a wide range of social and cultural backgrounds. Each article, which presents the personal thoughts and experiences of the writer on topics related to chapter concepts, helps students understand and appreciate the relationship between cul- ture and communication. Six of these articles are new to this edition.

• What Would You Do? A Question of Ethics boxes are short case studies that appear near the end of chapters. These cases, several of which are new to this edition, present ethical challenges and require students to think critically, sorting through a variety of ethical dilemmas faced by communicators. Conceptual material presented in Chapter 1 lays groundwork for the criteria on which students may base their assessments, but each case focuses on issues raised in a specifi c chapter.

Teaching and Learning Resources Communicate! is accompanied by a full suite of integrated materials that will make teaching and learning more effi cient and effective. Note to faculty: If you want your students to have access to the online resources for this book, please be sure to order them for your course. The content in these resources can be bundled with every new copy of the text or ordered separately. If you do not order them, your students will not have access to the online resources.

Availability of resources may differ by region. Check with your local Cengage Learning representative for details.

xviii Preface

Student Resources

• The Premium Website for Communicate! provides students with one-stop access to all the integrated technology resources that accompany the book. These resources include Speech Builder Express™ 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, interactive versions of the Skill Learning activities, interactive video activities, Web Resources links, and self-assessments. All resources are mapped to show both key discipline learn- ing concepts as well as specifi c chapter learn lists.

• The Communicate! interactive video activities feature the Conversation and Analysis communication scenario clips presented in the text so students can see and hear how the skills they are studying can be used to create effective conversa- tions in various circumstances. Students can answer the critical-thinking questions that accompany each video and then compare their answers to the authors’. This online resource also features videos of the sample informative and persuasive stu- dent speeches included in the book. Each speech is accompanied by a transcript, a preparation outline and a speaking outline, note cards, a speech critique checklist, and critical-thinking questions.

• Many of the Speech Plan Action Steps can be completed with the Speech Builder Express 3.0 organization and outlining program. This interactive Web-based tool coaches students through the speech organization and outlining process. By completing interactive sessions, students can prepare and save their outlines— including a plan for visual aids and a works cited section—formatted according to the principles presented in the text. Text models reinforce students’ interactive practice.

• InfoTrac College Edition with InfoMarks. This virtual library features more than 18 million reliable, full-length articles from 5,000 academic and popular periodicals that can be retrieved almost instantly. They also have access to InfoMarks—stable URLs that can be linked to articles, journals, and searches to save valuable time when doing research—and to the InfoWrite online resource center, where students can access grammar help, critical-thinking guidelines, guides to writing research papers, and much more.

• Speech StudioTM Online Video Upload and Grading Program improves the learn- ing comprehension of public speaking students. This unique resource empowers instructors with a new assessment capability that is applicable for traditional, online, and hybrid courses. With Speech Studio, students can upload video fi les of practice speeches or fi nal performances, comment on their peers’ speeches, and review their grades and instructor feedback. Instructors create courses and assign- ments, comment on and grade student speeches with a library of comments and grading rubrics, and allow peer review. Grades fl ow into a gradebook that allows instructors to easily manage their course from within Speech Studio.

• A Guide to the Basic Course for ESL Students can be bundled and is designed to assist the nonnative speaker. The Guide features FAQs, helpful URLs, and strategies for accent management and speech apprehension.

• Service Learning in Communication Studies: A Handbook is an invaluable resource for students in the basic course that integrates, or will soon integrate, a service- learning component. This handbook provides guidelines for connecting service- learning work with classroom concepts and advice for working effectively with agencies and organizations. It also provides model forms and reports and a direc- tory of online resources.

Availability of resources may differ by region. Check with your local Cengage Learning representative for details.

xix Preface

Instructor Resources

• The Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Bank by Katrina Bodey, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, changes from the twelfth edition to the thirteenth edition, sample syllabi, chapter-by-chapter outlines, summaries, vocabulary lists, suggested lecture and discussion topics, classroom exercises, assignments, and a comprehen- sive test bank with answer key and rejoinders. In addition, this manual includes the Spotlight on Scholars boxes that were in the textbook in past editions. These boxes feature the work of eight eminent communication scholars, putting a face on scholarship by telling each scholar’s “story.” These boxes can be used as discussion starters, as enrichment for students who are interested in communication scholar- ship, or in any other way instructors would like to integrate them into the course. Available online only. Access at the Communicate! Instructor Companion Website.

• Special-Topic Instructor’s Manuals. Written by Deanna Sellnow, University of Kentucky, these three brief manuals provide instructor resources for teaching pub- lic speaking online, with a service-learning approach, and with a problem-based learning approach that focuses on critical thinking and teamwork skills. Each manual includes course syllabi; icebreakers; information about learning cycles and learning styles; and public speaking basics such as coping with anxiety, out- lining, and speaking ethically.

• The Teaching Assistant’s Guide to the Basic Course, based on leading communi- cation teacher training programs, covers general teaching and course management topics as well as specifi c strategies for communication instruction—for example, providing effective feedback on performance, managing sensitive class discus- sions, and conducting mock interviews.

• The PowerLecture CD-ROM contains an electronic version of the Instructor’s Resource Manual, ExamView® Computerized Testing, and predesigned Microsoft PowerPoint presentations. The PowerPoint presentations contain text and images and can be used as they are or customized to suit your course needs.

• Communication Scenarios for Critique and Analysis on Video and DVD include the communication scenarios included in the Communicate! interactive videos as well as additional scenarios covering interpersonal communication, interviewing, and group communication.

• Launch your lectures with ABC News DVDs: Human Communication, Interpersonal Communication, and Public Speaking. Footage from Nightline, World News Tonight, and Good Morning America provides context and real-life examples of communica- tion theories and practices. Footage includes discussion of dozens of communication topics—including family “virtual visitation,” cell phone spam, and professional non- verbal communication—as well as signifi cant speeches by public fi gures.

• The BBC News and CBS News DVDs: Human Communication, Interpersonal Communication, and Public Speaking, provide footage of news stories that relate to current topics in human and interpersonal communication, and footage of famous historical and contemporary public speeches, as well as clips that relate to current topics in speech communication. Available Spring 2010.

• The Student Speeches for Critique and Analysis on Video and DVD offer a variety of sample student speeches, including those featured in the Communicate! interactive videos, that your students can watch, critique, and analyze on their own or in class. All of the speech types are included, as well as speeches featuring nonnative English speakers and the use of visual aids.

Availability of resources may differ by region. Check with your local Cengage Learning representative for details.

xx Preface

• ABC News DVD: Speeches by Barack Obama. This DVD includes nine famous speeches by President Barack Obama, from 2004 to the present day, including his speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention; his 2008 speech on race, “A More Perfect Union”; and his 2009 inaugural address. Speeches are divided into short video segments for easy, time-effi cient viewing. This instructor supplement also features critical-thinking questions and answers for each speech, designed to spark class discussion.

• The Media Guide for Interpersonal Communication provides faculty with media resource listings focused on general interpersonal communication topics. Each listing provides compelling examples of how interpersonal communication con- cepts are illustrated in particular fi lms, books, plays, Web sites, or journal articles. Discussion questions are provided.

Availability of resources may differ by region. Check with your local Cengage Learning representative for details.

xxi Preface

Acknowledgments This thirteenth edition of Communicate! has benefi tted from the work of many people we would like to recognize.

First, we thank our colleagues who reviewed the book and offered their insights and suggestions including Karen Anderson, University of North Texas; Thomas Bovino, Suffolk County Community College; Jon Croghan, Northwestern State University; Sheryl Davis, Kaiser University; James Floss, Humboldt State University; Thomas Gaines, Johnson & Wales University; King Godwin, Grambling State University; Daria Heinemann, Kaiser University; Tracey Holley, Tarleton State University; Keri Keckley, Crowder College; Nancy Levin, Palm Beach Community College; and Charlotte Toguchi, Kapiolani Community College.

We also want to thank Zach Leitch, Debbie Sellnow, and Rick Sellnow, who read the previous edition of this text and suggested where examples needed to be updated so that today’s 21st-century students would fi nd illustrations they could relate to.

We are fortunate to have the best editorial team in Communication Studies today. We are grateful for the support of Lyn Uhl, our senior publisher; Monica Eckman, executive editor; Colin Solan, editorial assistant; Jessica Badiner, media editor; Bryant Chrzan, marketing manager; Christine Dobberpuhl, marketing communications man- ager; Rosemary Winfi eld, senior content product manager; Linda Helcher, art director; Kristin Jobe, project manager at Elm Street Publishing Services; Barbara Armentrout, copy editor; Rokusek Design, designer; Dean Dauphinais, permissions acquisitions manager for images; Raquel Sousa, photo researcher; and Margaret Chamberlain- Gaston, permissions acquisitions manager for text. We give special thanks to Rebekah Matthews, assistant editor, who in addition to her usual duties helped us write the new Pop Comm! feature. As always, we are indebted to Greer Lleuad, senior development editor, who is simply the best in the business. We trust and respect her opinions and advice unconditionally. We simply could not have done this book without her.

We also thank our families for their continued patience, understanding, and support. Finally, we thank God for the many ways that our lives have been blessed. We

hope this book helps readers glimpse what Martin Buber called the “I-Thou” respect and love that we believe God planned us to have in our human relationships.

Kathleen S. Verderber and

Deanna D. Sellnow

Communication Perspectives

Questions you’ll be able to answer after reading this chapter:

• How does the communication process work? • What characterizes each of the communication settings you will study in

this course? • What are the basic principles of communication? • What major ethical issues face communicators? • What is communication competence and what can you do to achieve it? • What is communication apprehension and how does it relate to

communication competence?

Mimi and Marcus fi nished talking with the fi fth car salesperson.

“From what I could understand, most of the basic features we need are about

the same,” said Mimi. “So, for me, it comes down to who we feel most comfortable

with.”

“Yeah, that’s pretty much the way I see it. And from that standpoint, I’d pick

Carrie,” Marcus responded.

“She really seemed nice, didn’t she?” asked Mimi. “She seemed friendly and—

unlike Paul—she talked to both of us, not just you.”

Marcus replied, “She talked about features, price, and fi nancing options that

were tailored to our specifi c needs—unlike Dempsey, who spent most of his time

talking about luxury features that cost more than we can afford.”

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Mimi added, “Yeah, and Gloria was so disorganized . . . ”

“And she was so focused on getting through her presentation that she didn’t

even notice when you tried to ask a question!” Marcus interjected.

“I sort of liked Steve,” Mimi continued, “but when we suggested that the price

range he was quoting was out of our budget, he wasn’t much help. Once he got

off his ‘script,’ he seemed lost.”

“Well,” Marcus replied, “not only did Carrie offer a car with features we can use

and a fi nancing plan we can afford, she also led me to believe that we could call

her with questions later about when and where to service our vehicle.”

“OK,” Mimi said as she nodded. “So we agree; we’re buying our car from

Carrie!”

Why was Carrie successful? Was it the car she was promoting or her specialized expertise in the automobile business? Not necessarily. From this conversation, it appears that Carrie’s success was due to her ability to communicate with Mimi and Marcus. Carrie’s success is not unusual. Time and time again, studies have concluded that, for almost any job, employers seek oral communication skills, team- work skills, and interpersonal abilities (College learning for the new global century, 2008; Hansen & Hansen, 2007; Young, 2003). For example, an article on the role of communication in the workplace reported that in engineering, a highly technical fi eld, speaking skills were very important for 72 percent of the employers surveyed (Darling & Dannels, 2003, p. 12). A survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers (Koncz, 2008) reported the top 10 personal qualities and skills that employers seek from college graduates. The number one skill was communication, including face-to-face speaking, presentational speaking, and writing. Other skills ranked in the top 10 that you will learn about and practice in this course include teamwork skills (number three), analytical skills (number fi ve), interpersonal skills (number eight), and problem-solving skills (number nine). The employers also said these very skills are, unfortunately, the ones many new graduates lack. So this course can signifi cantly increase your ability to get a job and be successful in your chosen career.

How effectively you communicate with others is important not only to your ca- reer, but also to your personal relationships. Your ability to make and keep friends, to be a good family member, to have satisfying intimate relationships, to participate in or lead groups, and to prepare and present speeches depends on your communication skills. During this course, you will learn about the communication process and have an opportunity to practice basic communication skills that will help you improve your relationships.

In this chapter, we begin by explaining the process of communication. Next, we describe several communication settings and how we’ll address improving commu- nication skills for them in this book. From there, we describe several fundamental principles of communication. Finally, we discuss communication competence, the role managing communication apprehension plays in achieving it, and a strategy for improving your communication skills.

3 Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives

The Communication Process Communication is the process of creating or sharing meaning in informal conversa- tion, group interaction, or public speaking. To understand how this process works, we begin by describing its essential elements: participants (who), messages (what), context (where), channels (how), interference (distractions), and feedback (reaction).

Participants The participants are the individuals who assume the roles of senders and receivers during an interaction. As senders, participants form and transmit messages using ver- bal symbols, visual images, and nonverbal behavior. As receivers, they interpret the messages that have been transmitted to them.

Messages Messages are the verbal utterances, visual images, and nonverbal behaviors to which meaning is attributed during communication. To understand how messages are created and received, we need to understand meanings, symbols, encoding and decoding, and form (organization).

Meanings Meanings include the thoughts in your mind as well as the interpretations you make of another’s message. Meanings are the ways participants make sense of messages. It is important to realize that meanings are not transferred from one person to another, but are created together in an exchange. Some communication settings enable participants to verify that they have shared meanings; in other settings this is more diffi cult. For instance, if Sarah says to Tiffany that many female celebrities are unhealthily under- weight, through the exchange of verbal messages, they can together come to some degree of understanding of what that means. But if Sarah is giving a speech on the subject to an audience of 200 people, Tiffany’s ability to question Sarah and negotiate a mutual mean- ing is limited. If Sarah shows a slideshow of before-and-after photographs of some of the celebrities she is referring to, she can make the meaning clear even for a large audience.

Symbols To express yourself, you form messages made of verbal symbols (words), nonverbal cues (behaviors), and visual images. Symbols are words, sounds, and actions that rep- resent specifi c ideas and feelings. As you speak, you choose word symbols to express your meaning. At the same time, you also use facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, and tone of voice—all symbolic, nonverbal cues—in an attempt to express your mean- ing. Your listeners make interpretations or attribute meaning to the messages they receive. When you offer your messages through a variety of symbols, the meaning you are trying to convey becomes clearer.

Encoding and decoding Encoding is the process of putting your thoughts and feelings into words, nonverbal cues, and images. Decoding is the process of interpreting another’s message. Ordinarily you do not consciously think about either the encoding or the decoding process. Only when there is a diffi culty, such as speaking in a second language or having to use an easier vocabulary with children, do you become aware of encoding. You may not think about decoding until someone seems to speak in circles or uses unfamiliar technical words and you have diffi culty interpreting or understanding what is being said. Have you ever taken a course where the instructor used lots of unfamiliar technical words? If so, how did that affect the decoding process for you?

communication the process of creating or sharing meaning in informal conversation, group interaction, or public speaking.

participants individuals who assume the roles of senders and receivers during an interaction.

messages verbal utterances, visual images, and nonverbal behaviors to which meaning is attributed during communication.

meanings thoughts in our minds and interpretations of others’ messages.

symbols words, sounds, and actions that are generally understood to represent ideas and feelings.

encoding the process of putting our thoughts and feelings into words and nonverbal cues.

decoding the process of interpreting another’s message.

How does the communication process work?

4 Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives

Form (Organization) When the meaning we wish to share is complex, we may need to organize it in sections or in a certain order. Message form is especially important when one person talks with- out interruption for a relatively long time, such as in a public speech or when reporting an event to a colleague at work. Visual images also need to be organized and in good form if they are to aid understanding.

Context The context is composed of the (1) physical, (2) social, (3) historical, (4) psychological, and (5) cultural situations in which a communication encounter occurs, including what precedes and follows what is said. According to noted German philosopher Jürgen Habermas, the ideal speech situation is impossible to achieve, but considering its con- texts as we communicate with others can move us closer to that goal (Littlejohn & Foss, 2007 p. 335). The context affects the expectations of the participants, the mean- ing these participants derive, and their subsequent behavior.

Physical context The physical context includes the location, the environmental conditions (tempera- ture, lighting, and noise level), the distance between communicators, and the time of day. Each of these factors can affect the communication. For instance, the mean- ing shared in a conversation may be affected by whether it is held in a crowded company cafeteria, an elegant candlelit restaurant, over the telephone, or on the Internet.

Today, more and more of our communication exchanges occur in technologically mediated spaces. When you call someone on your cell phone, for instance, you are in different physical places and your conversation will be infl uenced by the physi- cal contexts each of you occupy as well as by the quality of your phone connection. Moreover, the messages and meaning are affected by whether the technology used is synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous technologies allow us to exchange mes- sages in real time, while asynchronous technologies allow delays between sending, receiving, and responding to messages. Telephone calls are synchronous, and voice mail messages and e-mail are typically asynchronous. Instant messages (IMs) and text messages may be either synchronous or asynchronous.

Social context The social context is the nature of the relationship between the participants. Whether communication takes place among family members, friends, acquaintances, work associates, or strangers infl uences what and how messages are formed, shared, and interpreted. For instance, most people change how they interact when talking with their parents or siblings as compared to how they interact when talking with their friends.

Historical context The historical context is the background provided by previous communication epi- sodes between the participants. It infl uences understandings in the current encounter. For instance, suppose one morning Chad tells Shelby that he will pick up the rough draft of a paper they had given to their professor for feedback to help prepare the fi nal manuscript. When Shelby joins Chad for lunch in the cafeteria, she says, “Did you get it?” Another person listening to the conversation would have no idea what the it is. Yet Chad quickly replies, “It’s on my desk.” Shelby and Chad would understand each other because the content of their previous conversation provides the context for understanding what “it” is in this exchange.

context the setting in which communication occurs, including what precedes and follows what is said.

physical context a communication encounter’s location, environmental conditions (temperature, lighting, noise level), distance between communicators, seating arrangements, and time of day.

social context the nature of the relationship that exists between the participants.

historical context the background provided by previous communication episodes between the participants that infl uence understandings in the current encounter.

5 Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives

Psychological context The psychological context includes the moods and feelings each person brings to the interpersonal encounter. For instance, suppose Corinne is under a lot of stress. While she is studying for an exam, a friend stops by and pleads with her to take a break and go to the gym with her. Corinne, who is normally good-natured, may explode with an angry tirade. Why? Because her stress level provides the psychological context within which she hears this message and it affects how she responds.

Cultural context The cultural context includes the values, beliefs, orientations, underlying assumptions, and rituals prevalent among people in a society (Samovar, Porter, & McDaniel, 2007). Culture penetrates into every aspect of our lives, affecting how we think, talk, and behave. Each of us belongs to many cultural groups, though we may differ in how much we identify with each group. Mina, for example, was born in Taiwan but was raised in Boston, where she attended Chinese elementary school. She is also a college student and a Democrat. Each of these groups helps characterize her cultural setting. When two people from different cultures interact, misunderstandings may occur because of the cultural variations between them. For example, the role of a “good student” in many Asian cultures typically means being quiet, respectful, and never challenging others’ views, but the good-student role in U.S. classrooms often includes being talkative, assertive, and debating the views expressed by others. The Pop Comm article in this chapter describes how the cultural ritual of mourning is changing in the U.S.A.

Channels Channels are both the route traveled by the message and the means of transportation. Messages are transmitted through sensory channels. Face-to-face communication has three basic channels: verbal symbols, nonverbal cues, and visual images. Technologically mediated communication uses these same channels, though nonverbal cues such as movements, touch, and gestures are represented by visual symbols like emoticons (textual images that symbolize the sender’s mood, emotion, or facial expressions) and acronyms (abbreviations that stand in for common phrases). For example, in a face-to-face inter- action, Barry might express his frustration about a poor grade on an assignment by ver- bally noting why he thought the grade was unfair, by visually showing the assignment along with the grading criteria for it, and by nonverbally raising his voice and shaking his fi st. In an online interaction, he might insert a frowning-face emoticon ( ) or the acronym “POed” to represent those nonverbal behaviors.

Interference (Noise) Interference (noise) is any stimulus that hinders the process of sharing meaning. Interference can be physical or psychological.

Physical interference includes the sights, sounds, and other stimuli in the envi- ronment that draw people’s attention away from intended meaning. For instance, while a

psychological context the mood and feelings each person brings to a conversation.

cultural context the values, attitudes, beliefs, orientations, and underlying assumptions prevalent among people in a society.

channel both the route traveled by the message and the means of transportation.

interference (noise) any stimulus that interferes with the process of sharing meaning.

physical interference sights, sounds, and other stimuli in the environment that draw people’s attention away from intended meaning.

Did you know that 2.5 billion text messages are sent each day in the United States?

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friend is giving you instructions on how to work the new MP3 player, your attention may be drawn away by the external noise of your favorite TV show, which is on in the next room. External noise does not have to be a sound, however. Perhaps, while your friend is giving instructions, your attention is drawn momentarily to an attractive man or woman. Such visual distractions are also physical interference.

Psychological interference includes internal distractions based on thoughts or feel- ings and can fall into two categories: internal noise and semantic noise. Internal noise refers to the thoughts and feelings that compete for attention and interfere with the com- munication process. If you have ever tuned out the lecture your professor is giving and tuned into a daydream or a past conversation, then you have experienced internal noise. Semantic noise refers to the distractions aroused by certain symbols that take our atten- tion away from the main message. If a friend describes a 40-year-old secretary as “the girl in the offi ce,” and you think girl is an odd and condescending term for a 40-year-old

psychological interference internal distractions based on thoughts, feelings, or emotional reactions to symbols.

internal noise thoughts and feelings that compete for attention and interfere with the communication process.

Mourning in the United States, 21st-Century Style

Mourning is a universal human communica- tion activity. It is the process of celebrating the life of someone while grieving his or her death. Mourning rituals and traditions vary by culture and religion and change over time. So it is not surprising that mourning in the United States

in the 21st century is adapting past practices to modern life.

Mourning rituals include norms for how the body of the deceased is dealt with, burial and commemorative rituals, symbols of mourning, and comforting practices. In the past, personally washing, dressing, and preparing the body for burial enabled mourners to present the deceased as they would like the person to be remembered. Burial and commemorative rituals gave family, friends, and the larger community an oppor- tunity to gather, exchange memories of the deceased, comfort those closest to the deceased, and receive comfort in return. Graves were places where those close to the deceased could go to “talk” to the departed and recall memories. Family members would often withdraw into their homes for a period of time to grieve. Friends and community members would visit with the fam- ily in their home during this intense period of mourning. Those closest to the person who had died chose or were expected to wear symbols of their status as mourners. Mourning clothes and tokens served as signals to others in the commu- nity that the person so dressed was in mourning and should be accorded extra gentleness.

Today, in the U.S.A. most families do not per- sonally prepare the body of their loved one for burial

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woman, you might not even hear the rest of what your friend has to say. Whenever we react emotionally to a word or a behavior, we are experiencing semantic noise.

Feedback Feedback is the reactions and responses to a message that indicate to the sender whether and how that message was heard, seen, and interpreted. In face-to-face communica- tion, we can express feedback verbally through words or nonverbally through body language. In online interactions, we can express feedback verbally through words or nonverbally through emoticons and acronyms. We continuously give feedback when we are listening to another, if only by paying attention, giving a confused look, or showing signs of boredom. Or we may give direct verbal feedback by saying, “I don’t understand the point you are making” or “That’s a great comment you just made.” In online interac- tions, we might use an acronym like CC (I understand) or WDYM (What do you mean?).

semantic noise distractions aroused by certain symbols that take our attention away from the main message.

feedback reactions and responses to messages.

or wear special mourning clothes. Increasingly, one or more members of the family may honor their loved one by preparing a commemorative Web page that memorializes the life of the departed. Web sites such as Legacy.com, MyDeathSpace.com, and Memory-Of.com have been around for over a decade to facilitate the creation of interactive online memo- rials. An article in The Boston Globe recounted the story of Shawn Kelley who created a “moving trib- ute” to his brother Michael, a National Guardsman killed in Afghanistan. The 60-second video features a slide show of Michael growing up, from a toddler to a clean-cut teen, while quiet classical music plays softly and a voice-over recounts Michael’s attributes and interests. Shawn reported that it made him feel good to be able to “talk” about his brother, and over a year later he was still visiting the site to watch the video and to view the messages left by family mem- bers and friends (Plumb, 2006). Today the rituals traditionally associated with funerals and memorial services such as eulogies, visitations, and expres- sions of condolence now often take place online.

Interactive memorial Web sites also have become a “place” where mourners can “visit” with their departed loved one and connect with other mourners, activities that traditionally occurred at a funeral or memorial service. Most Web sites that host memorial Web pages allow visitors to leave messages of condolence, share stories about the deceased, and leave messages directed to the deceased. Denise McGrath, a mother who created “R.I.P. Tony,” a memorial Web page for her teen- age son on MySpace explained that it was “just a

place for his friends to go” (Plumb, 2006). Today Legacy.com hosts over 50,000 permanent memo- rials and reports being visited by over 10 million users each month (Plumb, 2009).

The somber mourning clothes of past genera- tions have given way to newer ways of marking oneself as in mourning. Today family members and friends may wear T-shirts imprinted with pictures of the deceased. This practice is most common when the departed is young and died a violent death. According to Montana Miller, pro- fessor of popular culture at Bowling Green State University, the tradition of wearing commemora- tive t-shirts originated with West Coast gangs in the early 1990s (Moser, 2005).

Not only are people using T-shirts to signal mourning, but they are also designing decals to place on cars and bikes to memorialize those who have died. In a highly mobile society, decals are visual markers that can not only memorialize a loved one who has died but can also connect mourners to others who have suffered a similar loss. When one 17-year-old was shot and killed, hundreds of people in his town put memorial decals in their car windows. Four years later the young man’s mother reported that seeing those decals continued to help her with her grieving process (Moser, 2005).

Although we may no longer personally pre- pare the dead for burial or wear somber formal mourning clothes, we still need to connect and communicate with others as we grieve, and we continue to evolve new methods for doing so.

8 Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives

Participants

Decoder

Encoder

Meaning

Encoder

Decoder

Meaning

Context

Noise

Noise

Noise

Sending Channel

Feedback Cha nne

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A Model of the Basic Communication Process Figure 1.1 illustrates the communication process between two people. In the minds of these people are meanings, thoughts, and feelings that they intend to share. These thoughts and feelings are created and shaped by the people’s values, culture, environment, experiences, occupation, sex, interests, knowledge, and attitudes. To communicate a message, the sender encodes thoughts and feelings into messages that are sent using one or more channels.

The receiver decodes or interprets the symbols in an attempt to understand the speaker’s meaning. This decoding process is affected by the receiver’s total fi eld of experience—that is, by all the same factors that shape the encoding process. Feedback completes the process so that the sender and receiver can arrive at a similar under- standing of the message.

The model depicts the context as the area around the participants. This may include the physical, social, historical, psychological, and cultural contexts that permeate all parts of the process. Similarly, the model shows that during conversation physical and psychological interference (noise), including internal and semantic distractions, may interfere at various points and therefore affect the people’s ability to arrive at similar meanings. As you might imagine, the process becomes more complex when more than two people are conversing or when someone is speaking to a large and diverse audience.

Communication Settings The basic communication process describes how meanings are shared and in this course you will learn skills that will help you communicate effectively regardless

communication setting the different communication environments within which people interact, characterized by the number of participants and the extent to which the interaction is formal or informal; also called communication contexts.

intrapersonal communication the interactions that occur in a person’s mind when he or she is talking with himself or herself.

Skill Learning Activity 1.1

Figure 1.1 A model of communication between two individuals

What characterizes each of the communication settings discussed in this book?

9 Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives

of the type of interaction you are experiencing. But there are also important skills to learn that are specifi c to a particular communication setting. Communication settings differentiate interactions based on the number of participants and the extent to which the interaction is characterized by formal or informal exchanges. Also called communication contexts by some scholars these classifi cations describe the different communication environments within which we interact. (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008, pp. 52–53). In this book, you will learn skills that will help you in intrapersonal settings, interpersonal settings, small group settings, and public com- munication settings.

Intrapersonal communication refers to the interactions that occur in your mind when you are talking with yourself. While we may occasionally think out loud, we usually don’t verbalize our internal dialog. When you sit in class and think about what you’ll do later that day, you are communicating intrapersonally. Similarly, when you send yourself a reminder note as an e-mail or text message, you are communicat- ing intrapersonally. A lot of our intrapersonal communication occurs subconsciously (Kellerman, 1992). When we drive into the driveway “without thinking,” we are communicating intrapersonally on a subconscious level. The study of intrapersonal communication often focuses on its role in shaping self-perceptions and in managing communication apprehension, that is, the fear associated with communicating with others (McCroskey, 1977). Our study of intrapersonal communication will focus on self-talk as a means to improve your self-concept and self-esteem and, ultimately, your communication competence in a variety of situations.

Interpersonal communication is characterized by informal interaction between two people who have an identifi able relationship with each other (Knapp & Daly, 2002). Talking to a friend between classes, visiting on the phone with your mother, texting or chatting online with your brother, and comforting someone who has suffered a loss are all examples of interpersonal communication. In Part II, our study of interpersonal communication includes the exploration of how we develop, maintain, improve, or end our relationships with others. We will also focus on listen- ing and responding to others with empathy and on sharing personal information.

Small group communication typically involves three to 20 people who come together to communicate with one another (Beebe & Masterson, 2006; Hirokawa, Cathcart, Samovar, & Henman, 2003). There are many kinds of small groups; examples include a family, a group of friends, a group of classmates working on a project, and a manage- ment team in the workplace. Small group communication can occur in face-to-face settings, as well as online through electronic mailing lists, discussion boards, and blogs. In Part III, our study of small groups focuses on the characteris- tics of effective groups, ethical and effective communication in groups, leadership, problem-solving, confl ict, and group presentations.

Public communication is communication delivered to audiences of more than 20 people. Public communication includes public speeches and other types of mass com- munication that you may experience live, in person, or on a delayed or mediated basis. For example, when President Barack Obama deliv- ered his inaugural address some people were there, others watched on TV or the

interpersonal communication informal interaction between two people who have an identifi able relationship with each other.

small group communication two to 20 people who participants come together for the specifi c purpose of solving a problem or arriving at a decision.

public communication one participant, the speaker, delivers a prepared message to a group or audience who has assembled to hear the speaker.

How might the conversation of these people differ if they were in the library working on a class project?

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Internet at the time he spoke, and still others have experienced his speech after Inaugural Day by viewing it in the form of televised snippets or via a Web site such as YouTube. The Internet is also becoming the medium of choice for posting job ads and résumés, for advertising and buying products, and for political activism. In Part IV, our study of public communication will focus on preparing, practic- ing, and delivering effective oral presentations in both face-to-face and virtual environments.

Communication Principles Principles are general truths. Understanding the principles of communication is impor- tant as you begin your study because they will provide a foundation for practicing and improving your communication skills. In this section, we discuss seven generally agreed-upon principles: communication has purpose, communication is continuous, communication messages vary in conscious thought, communication is relational, communication is guided by culture, communication has ethical implications, and communication is learned.

Communication Has Purpose When people communicate with each other, they have a purpose for doing so. The purpose may be serious or trivial, and they may or may not be aware of it at the time. Here we list fi ve basic purposes for communicating that we’ll be addressing throughout the book.

1. We communicate to develop and maintain our sense of self. Through our inter- actions, we learn who we are, what we are good at, and how people react to how we behave.

2. We communicate to meet our social needs. Just as we need food, water, and shel- ter, so too do we, as social animals, need contact with other people. Two people may converse happily for hours, chatting about inconsequential matters that nei- ther remembers afterward. Still, their communication has functioned to meet the important need simply to talk with another human being.

3. We communicate to develop and maintain relationships. Not only do we get to know others through our communication with them but, more importantly, we develop relationships with them—relationships that grow and deepen or stagnate and wither away. For example, when Beth calls Leah to ask whether she’d like to join her for lunch to discuss a project they are working on, her purpose actually may be to resolve a misunderstanding they’ve had because she wants to maintain a positive relationship with Leah.

4. We communicate to exchange information. Some information we get through observation, some through reading, some through media, and a great deal through direct communication with others, whether face-to-face, via text messaging, or online through e-mail and social networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace. Whether we are trying to decide how warmly to dress or whom to vote for in the next election, all of us have countless exchanges that involve sending and receiv- ing information.

5. We communicate to infl uence others. It is doubtful that a day goes by in which you don’t engage in behavior such as trying to convince your friends to go to a particular restaurant or to see a certain movie, to persuade your supervisor to alter your schedule, or to convince an instructor to change a grade.

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What are the fundamental principles of communication?

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Communication Is Continuous Because communication is nonverbal and visual as well as verbal, we are always send- ing behavioral messages from which others draw inferences or meaning. Even silence communicates if another person infers meaning from it. Why? Because your nonverbal behavior represents reactions to your environment and to the people around you. If you are cold, you shiver; if you are hot or nervous, you perspire; if you are bored, happy, or confused, your face or body language probably will show it. Not only that, we are continuously sending and receiving multiple messages when we communicate with others. For example, as you talk with your friend about where to go on spring break, both of you are simultaneously sending and receiving multiple verbal and non- verbal messages to each other. As skilled communicators, we need to be aware of the explicit and implicit messages we are constantly sending to others.

Communication Messages Vary in Conscious Thought Recall that sharing meaning with another person involves encoding and decoding verbal messages, nonverbal cues, and even visual images. Our messages may (1) occur spontane- ously, (2) be based on a “script” we have learned or rehearsed, or (3) be carefully constructed based on our understanding of the unique situation in which we fi nd ourselves.

Many of our messages are spontaneous expressions, spoken without much con- scious thought. For example, when you burn your fi nger, you may blurt out, “Ouch!” When something goes right, you may break into a broad smile.

At other times, our messages are scripted, phrasings that we have learned from our past encounters and judge to be appropriate to the present situation. Many of these scripts are learned in childhood. For example, when you want the sugar bowl but cannot reach it, you may say, “Please pass the sugar,” followed by “Thank you” when someone complies. This conversational sequence comes from your “table manners script,” which may have been drilled into you at home. Scripts enable us to use mes- sages that are appropriate to the situation and are likely to increase the effectiveness of our communication. One goal of this text is to acquaint you with general scripts (or skills) that can be adapted for use in your communication encounters across a variety of relationships, situations, and cultures.

Finally, our messages may be carefully constructed to meet the unique requirements of a particular situation. Constructed messages are those that we put together with care- ful thought when we recognize that our known scripts are inadequate for the situation.

Communication Is Relational In any communication setting, in addition to sharing content meaning, our messages also refl ect two important aspects of our relationships: immediacy and control.

Immediacy is the degree of liking or attractiveness in a relationship. For instance, when José passes Josh on campus he may say, “Josh, good to see you” (a verbal expression of friendliness); the nonverbal behavior that accompanies the words may show Josh whether José is genuinely happy to see him or is only expressing recogni- tion. For instance, if José smiles, has a sincere sound to his voice, looks Josh in the eye, and perhaps pats him on the back or shakes hands fi rmly, then Josh will recognize these signs of friendliness. If, however, José speaks quickly with no vocal infl ection and with a deadpan facial expression, Josh will probably perceive the comment as impersonal communication offered merely to meet some social expectation.

Control is the degree to which one participant is perceived to be more domi- nant or powerful. Thus, when Tom says to Sue, “I know you’re concerned about

spontaneous expressions messages spoken without much conscious thought.

scripted messages phrasings learned from past encounters that we judge to be appropriate to the present situation.

constructed messages messages put together with careful thought when we recognize that our known scripts are inadequate for the situation.

immediacy the degree of liking or attractiveness in a relationship.

control the degree to which one participant is perceived to be more dominant or powerful.

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the budget, but I’ll see to it that we have money to cover every- thing,” his words and the sound of his voice may be saying that he is “in charge” of fi nances—that he is in control. How Sue responds to Tom determines whether, on this issue, she submits to his per- ception of control. If Sue says, “Thanks, I know you have a bet- ter handle on fi nances than I do,” then she accepts that on this issue, she is willing to submit to Tom at this time. A few days later, if Tom says to Sue, “I think we need to cut back on credit card expenses for a couple of months,” and Sue responds, “No way! I need a new

suit for work, the car needs new tires, and you promised we could replace the couch,” then the nature of the relationship will require further discussion.

Communication Is Guided by Culture Culture may be defi ned as systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large group of people. It includes a system of shared beliefs, values, symbols, and behaviors. How messages are formed and interpreted depends on the cultural background of the par- ticipants. We need to look carefully at ourselves and our communication behavior; as we interact with others whose cultural backgrounds differ from our own, so we don’t unintentionally communicate in ways that are culturally inappropriate or insensitive and thereby undermine our relationships. In addition to national and ethnic culture we also need to be sensitive to the sex, age, class, and sexual orientation of our listeners. Failure to take those differences into account when we interact can also lead us to behave insensitively.

Throughout the history of the United States, we’ve experienced huge migrations of people from different parts of the world. According to the New York Times Almanac (Wright, 2002), at the turn of the 21st century, people of Latin and Asian descent con- stituted 12.5 percent and 3.8 percent, respectively, of the total U.S. population. About 2.4 percent of the population regards itself as multiracial. Combined with the approxi- mately 13 percent of our population that is of African descent, these four groups account for nearly 32 percent of the total population. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, this fi gure is predicted to rise to nearly 50 percent by 2050.

According to Samovar, Porter, and McDaniel (2007) “a number of cultural com- ponents are particularly relevant to the student of intercultural communication. These include (1) perception, (2) patterns of cognition, (3) verbal behaviors, (4) nonverbal behaviors, and the infl uence of context” (p. 13). Because cultural concerns permeate all of communication, in each chapter of this book we will point out when the concepts and skills you are learning are viewed differently by cultural groups other than the dominant American one. In the Diverse Voices feature found in many chapters, authors explain how they or their culture views a concept presented in the text. In this chapter, Harlan Cleveland describes how the diverse peoples in the United States have learned to live together.

culture systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large group of people.

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What message about immediacy and control do wedding couples send as they feed each other cake? Power in relationships is infl uenced by both verbal and nonverbal messages.

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Lessons from American Experience

by Harland Cleveland

The late Harland Cleveland was president of the University of Hawaii and the World Academy of Art and Science. In this selection, Cleveland explains how Hawaii, the most diverse of our 50 states, achieves eth- nic and racial peace. He argues that the Hawaiian experience is no different from the experience of immigrants to the mainland; the ability to tolerate diversity is not unique in the world.

We Americans have learned, in our short but intensive 200-plus years of history as a nation, a fi rst lesson about diversity: that it cannot be governed by drowning it in “integration.”

I came face-to-face with this truth when, just a quarter of a century ago, I became president of the University of Hawaii. Everyone who lives in Hawaii, or even visits there, is impressed by its residents’ comparative tolerance toward each other. On closer inspection, paradise seems based on paradox: Everybody’s a minority. The toler- ance is not despite the diversity but because of it.

It is not through the disappearance of ethnic distinctions that the people of Hawaii achieved a level of racial peace that has few parallels around our discriminatory globe. Quite the contrary. The glory is that Hawaii’s main ethnic groups man- aged to establish the right to be separate. The group separateness, in turn, helped establish the rights of individuals in each group to equality with individuals of different racial aspect, ethnic origin, and cultural heritage.

Hawaii’s experience is not so foreign to the transatlantic migrations of the various more-or-less white Caucasians. On arrival in New York (passing that inscription on the Statue of Liberty, “Send these, the homeless, tempest- tossed, to me”), the European immigrants did not melt into the open arms of the white Anglo Saxon Protestants who preceded them. The reverse was true. The new arrivals stayed close to their own kind; shared religion, language, humor, and dis- criminatory treatment with their soul brothers

and sisters; and gravitated at fi rst into occu- pations that did not too seriously threaten the earlier arrivals.

The waves of new Americans learned to tol- erate each other—fi rst as groups, only thereafter as individuals. Rubbing up against each other in an urbanizing America, they discovered not just the old Christian lesson that all men are brothers, but the hard, new, multicultural lesson that all brothers are different. Equality is not the product of similarity; it is the cheerful acknowledgement of difference.

What’s so special about our experience is the assumption that people of many kinds and colors can together govern themselves without deciding in advance which kinds of people (male or female, black, brown, yellow, red, white, or any mix of these) may hold any particular public offi ce in the pantheon of political power.

For the twenty-first century, this “cheerful acknowledgement of differences is the alter- native to a global spread of ethnic cleansing and religious rivalry. The challenge is great, for ethnic cleansing and religious rivalry are traditions as contemporary as Bosnia and Rwanda in the 1990s and as ancient as the Assyrians.

In too many countries, there is still a basic (if often unspoken) assumption that one kind of people is anointed to be in general charge. Try to imagine a Turkish chancellor of Germany, an Algerian president of France, a Pakistani prime minister of Britain, a Christian president of Egypt, an Arab prime minister of Israel, a Jewish president of Syria, a Tibetan ruler of Beijing, anyone but a Japanese in power in Tokyo. Yet in the United States during the twentieth cen- tury, we have already elected an Irish Catholic as president, chosen several Jewish Supreme Court justices, and racially integrated the armed forces right up to the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . . . .

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Communication Has Ethical Implications In any encounter, we choose whether or not to communicate ethically. Ethics is a set of moral principles that may be held by a society, a group, or an individual. Although what is considered ethical is a matter of personal judgment, various groups still expect members to uphold certain standards. These standards infl uence the personal decisions we make. When we choose to violate the standards that are expected, we are viewed to be unethical. Here are fi ve ethical standards that infl uence our communication and guide our behavior.

1. Truthfulness and honesty mean refraining from lying, cheating, stealing, or deception. “An honest person is widely regarded as a moral person, and honesty is a central concept to ethics as the foundation for a moral life” (Terkel & Duval, 1999, p. 122). Although most people accept truthfulness and honesty as a stan- dard, they still confess to lying on occasion. We are most likely to lie when we are caught in an ethical dilemma, a choice involving an unsatisfactory alternative. An example of an ethical dilemma would be a boss asking us if our coworker arrived to work late today and knowing that telling the truth would get the coworker fi red.

2. Integrity means maintaining a consistency of belief and action (keeping promises). Terkel and Duval (1999) say, “A person who has integrity is someone who has strong moral principles and will successfully resist the temptation to compromise those prin- ciples” (p. 135). Integrity, then, is the opposite of hypocrisy. A person who had prom- ised to help a friend study for the upcoming exam would live up to this promise even when another friend offered a free ticket to a sold-out concert for the same night.

3. Fairness means achieving the right balance of interests without regard to one’s own feelings and without showing favor to any side in a confl ict. Fairness implies impartiality or lack of bias. To be fair to someone is to listen with an open mind, to gather all the relevant facts, consider only circumstances relevant to the decision at hand, and not let prejudice or irrelevancies affect how you treat others. For example, if two of her children are fi ghting, a mom is exercising fairness if she listens openly as the children explain “their side” before she decides what to do.

4. Respect means showing regard or consideration for others and their ideas, even if we don’t agree with them. Respect is not based on someone’s affl uence, job status, or ethnic background. In a classroom, students show respect for oth- ers by attentively listening to another student’s speech even when the main point violates their political or religious position.

ethics a set of moral principles that may be held by a society, a group, or an individual.

ethical dilemma a choice involving two unsatisfactory alternatives.

What ethical issues face communicators?

I wouldn’t dream of arguing that we Americans have found the Holy Grail of cultural diversity when, in fact, we’re still searching for it. We have to think hard about our growing plural- ism. It’s useful, I believe, to dissect in the open our thinking about it, to see whether the lessons we are trying to learn might stimulate some use- ful thinking elsewhere. We still do not quite know how to create “wholeness incorporating diver- sity,” but we owe it to the world, as well as to ourselves, to keep trying.

Refl ective Questions

1. To what degree to you think America has moved forward since Harland Cleveland offered these statements?

2. Name some specifi c examples to support your opinion.

Excerpted from Harland Cleveland, “The Limits to Cultural Diversity,” in Intercultural Communication: A Reader (12th ed.), eds. Larry A. Samovar, Richard E. Porter, and Erwin R. McDaniel (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2009), pp. 431–434. Reprinted by permission of the World Future Society.

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5. Responsibility means being accountable for one’s actions and what one says. Responsible communicators recognize the power of words. Messages can hurt and messages can soothe. Information is accurate or it may be faulty. A responsible communicator would not spread a false rumor about another friend.

In our daily lives, we often face ethical dilemmas and must sort out what is more or less right or wrong. In making these deci- sions, we usually reveal our ethical standards. At the end of each chapter of this book, the feature What Would You Do? A Question of Ethics will ask you to think about and resolve an ethical dilemma that relates to that chapter’s content. Your instructor may use these as a vehicle for class discussions, or you may be asked to prepare a written report.

Communication Is Learned Just as you learned to walk, so too you learned to communicate. But talking is a complex under- taking. You may not yet have learned all of the skills you will need to develop healthy relationships. Because communication is learned, you can improve your ability. Throughout this text, we identify communication skills that can help you become a more competent communicator.

Increasing Our Communication Competence Communication competence is the impression that communicative behavior is both appropriate and effective in a given situation (Spitzberg, 2000, p. 375). Communication is effective when it achieves its goals; it is appropriate when it conforms to what is expected in a situation. We create the perception that we are competent communicators through the verbal messages we send, and the nonverbal behaviors and visual images that accompany them. Competence is an impression or judgment that people make about others. Because communication is at the heart of how we relate to each other, one of your goals in this course will be to learn strategies to increase the likelihood that others will view you as competent.

Perceptions of competence depend, in part, on personal motivation, knowledge, and skills (Spitzberg, 2000, p. 377). Motivation is important because we will only be able to improve our communication if we are motivated—that is, if we want to. People are likely to be more motivated if they are confi dent and if they see potential

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communication competence the impression that communicative behavior is both appropriate and effective in a given situation.

Just as children learn how to behave from their parents, so too do they learn to communicate. What specifi c communication behaviors can you identify that you learned at home?

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rewards. Knowledge is important because we must know what is involved in in- creasing competence. The more knowledge people have about how to behave in a given situation, the more likely they are to be able to develop competence. Skill is important because we must know how to act in ways that are consistent with our communication knowledge. Skills are goal-oriented actions or action sequences that we can master and repeat in appropriate situations. The more skills you have, the more likely you are to be able to structure your messages effectively and ap- propriately.

In addition to motivation, knowledge, and skills, credibility and social ease are important components of communication competence. Credibility is a perception of a speaker’s knowledge, trustworthiness, and warmth. Listeners are more likely to be attentive to and infl uenced by speakers they see as credible. Social ease means managing communication apprehension so you do not appear nervous or anxious. To be seen as a competent communicator, it is important that you can speak in a style that conveys confi dence and poise. Communicators that appear apprehensive are not likely to be regarded as competent, despite their motivation or knowledge.