Explain factors for determining the client’s stage of change and identify which stage of change the client is in. What two motivational interviewing techniques would be helpful in assessing substance abuse in this case? Give reasons and explanations.

Motivational Interviewing and Stages of Change

The stages of change model suggests that clients who are in the process of changing addictive behavior move through successive stages, from limited insight to maintenance of change. These stages will be presented by the client’s attitudes and behaviors. It is the job of the clinician to identify the correct stage and employ specific interventions for the treatment to be successful. Most clients opting for an assessment will likely be in the early stages of change.

The major tenets of motivational interviewing were designed to provide clinicians with tools to facilitate the change process in clients. Extensive research supports its effectiveness and it has become the standard in the past decade. These techniques are grounded in the client-centered approach rather than the confrontational approach to substance abuse treatment used in previous decades.

Use the module readings and the Argosy University online library resources to research motivational interviewing and the stages of change model.

Download and review the case study.

Respond to the following:

  • Explain factors for determining the client’s stage of change and identify which stage of change the client is in.
  • What two motivational interviewing techniques would be helpful in assessing substance abuse in this case? Give reasons and explanations.

Support your responses using your module readings and authoritative resources. Incorporate theory and factual information in your response.

Write your initial response in 2–3 paragraphs. Apply APA standards to citation of sources

Read a selection of your colleagues’ postings. Respond to your colleagues’ postings. Respond in one or more of the following ways:

Please no plagiarism and make sure you are able to access all resource on your own before you bid. One of the references must come from Flamez, B. & Sheperis, C. J. (2015) and/or Sommers-Flanagan, J., & Sommers-Flanagan, R. (2007). I have also attached my discussion rubric so you can see how to make full points. Please respond to all 3 of my classmates separately with references. I need this completed by 12/15/18 at 10am.

Read a selection of your colleagues’ postings. Respond to your colleagues’ postings.

Respond in one or more of the following ways:

· Ask a probing question.

· Share an insight gained from having read your colleague’s posting.

· Offer and support an opinion.

· Validate an idea with your own experience.

· Make a suggestion.

· Expand on your colleague’s posting.

1. Classmate (K. Rog)

Fears, Phobias, and Anxiety

Main Discussion Post

Figuring out an accurate diagnosis is the beginning step when treating a mental disorder (Flamez & Sheperis, 2016). Anxiety and fear is a normal part of childhood development (Flamez & Sheperis, 2016). Unfortunately a lot of anxiety and fear that is experienced in childhood follows children and adolescents into adulthood. A child’s anxiety symptoms include affective, physiological, behavioral, and cognitive aspects (Flamez & Sheperis, 2016).  Childhood phobias are crippling (Roberts, Farrell, Waters, Oar, & Ollendick, 2016).

Common Adolescent Phobia

Studies have proven that it is common for young people to report fears that relate to animals, medical visits, and situational and environmental challenges (Muris & Field, 2010). A common adolescent phobia is being afraid to make new friends in a new environment. Individuals who experience social anxiety disorder have fear or anxiety that relates to social situations where they may be scrutinized (Flamez & Sheperis, 2016). Children who experience social anxiety disorder often have a desire to interact with others but forgo the opportunity due to fear that they will perform poorly or be perceived negatively (Flamez & Sheperis, 2016).

Potential Factors

One potential societal factor that may contribute to the fear of making new friends is the adolescent feeling that they are not worthy or popular enough to warrant a friendship. This could be based on the societal norms of name brand clothing, latest hairstyle, and even dialect. If any of these social norms are realized then this can subject the adolescent to being bullied. Peer bullying is a problem that exists worldwide (Pecjak & Pirc, 2017).  There is a perception that the school promotes a culture where showing aggression is a valid way for student affirmation as well as entertaining peers (Pecjak & Pirc, 2017).  With this in mind, the adolescent’s fear is justified in that they do not want to be penalized for not living up to others’ expectations.

One potential cultural factor is ethnicity. The Latina/o community is discriminated against often just for being of a different ethnicity that speaks a different language. The worldview of them is often negative and disheartening which adds to their stress and cultural challenges. Many Latina/o children struggle to find their own sense of belonging (Sue & Sue, 2016). In our society beauty is measured by Hollywood’s standards. African-Americans have full lips, full hips, various hair types, and various eye colors yet our beauty is often times seen as inferior to those of other ethnicities which can make us look at ourselves and question how we look and who we are.

One potential environmental factor is that the adolescent may have previously experienced a traumatic experience when trying to make new friends. Social anxiety disorder symptoms are often times developed during early childhood but remain undiagnosed for several years (Flamez & Sheperis, 2016). If the adolescent has previously had a bad experience with initiating new friendships then they would likely have a lot of anxiety concerning doing it again. The adolescent may be scared to repeat the same mistakes or concerned that they will freeze up, say the wrong thing or be too shy to say anything at all. The embarrassment of their past failures could easily be driving their current anxiety.

How to Help Parents/Guardians

Treatment can be enhanced when parents view their child’s mental health treatment in a positive way (Roberts et al., 2016).  Parents are encouraged to actively participate in their child’s mental health treatment process (Roberts et al., 2016). Being able to provide parents and guardians with resources that can help them work through their child’s anxiety would also be helpful. After giving them the resources, in the next counseling session we could review what they found and give them an opportunity to ask any follow-up questions.

Conclusion

Social anxiety disorder specifically focuses on performance that includes fear of avoidance behavior in relation to the public (Flamez & Sheperis, 2016). There are several factors that can contribute to this type of anxiety such as society, culture, and environment. Working with both the parents and the adolescents to overcome social anxiety disorder is extremely helpful in the treatment process.

References

Flamez, B., & Sheperis, C. J. (2016). Diagnosing and treating children and adolescents: A guide for clinical and school settings. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Muris, P., & Field, A. P. (2010). The Role of Verbal Threat Information in the Development of Childhood Fear. “Beware the Jabberwock!”. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review,13(2), 129-150. doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0064-1

Pečjak, S., & Pirc, T. (2017). Bullying and Perceived School Climate: Victims’ and Bullies’ Perspective. Studia Psychologica, 59(1), 22-33. doi:10.21909/sp.2017.01.728

Roberts, C. L., Farrell, L. J., Waters, A. M., Oar, E. L., & Ollendick, T. H. (2015). Parents’ Perceptions of Novel Treatments for Child and Adolescent Specific Phobia and Anxiety Disorders. Child Psychiatry & Human Development,47(3), 459-471. doi:10.1007/s10578-015-0579-2

Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2016). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

2. Classmate (H. Plo)

Phobias differ from typical childhood fears.  Phobias are communicated through a child’s behavior such as crying, freezing, tantrums, avoidance, etc.  These behaviors are persistent and last for six months or more (American Psychological Association, 2013).  Researchers continue to strive to discover the innate causes of phobias. There are also several studies devoted to the most effective strategies for treating phobias.

Common Child Phobia

A fear develops into a phobia if it has occurred for at least six months (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).  According to the DSM-5 (2013), phobias occur in children of the United States with a frequency of about 5% and 16% among adolescents. One common child phobia is the fear of animals, zoophobia.  One study found the first symptoms of zoophobia occur in children 8-10 years old (Ajdacic-Gross, Rodgers, Muller, Hengartner, Aleksandrowicz, et. al, 2016). There are several, more specific, animal phobias within the umbrella of zoophobia.

Potential Factors

One potential factor for the development of zoophobia is a traumatic event (Ajdacic-Gross, Rodgers, Muller, Hengartner, Aleksandrowicz, et. al, 2016).  For example, if a child went to a petting zoo and was chased by a chicken then he or she may develop a fear of chickens. This fear could evolve into a phobia if the child does not confront the stimulus causing the panic reaction.  A child could be encouraged by parents and/or guardians to first look at and slowly progress to feeding or touching a chicken.

Another potential factor is environmental (American Psychological Association, 2013).  Children observe others in their environment and tend to react to stimulus similarly. Many studies have shown a correlation between families and phobic disorders (Steinhausen, Jacobsen, Meyer, Jorgensen, & Lieb, (2016).  This could be attributed to the evolutionary behavior of survival of the species. For example, members of a species group had a better chance of surviving in the wild if they reacted to stimuli quickly. Therefore, when one member of the group reacted the others were soon to follow.

A third potential factor is personal variables between age and the phobia (Phobias, 2018).  Knowledge increases with age and experience. If a child has never encountered a type of animal then he or she may be inherently afraid of it because it is unknown.  For example, if a child has never observed a goat then he or she may become afraid of the unknown.

Parents/Guardians Support

One method to support parents and/or guardians is to encourage their participation in the therapy process.  The client having the support of parents, guardians, or others could increase the effectiveness of treatment due to consistency during and out of therapy sessions.  When parents and/or guardians participate in the child’s therapy attendance increases and motivation improves (Haine-Schlagel & Walsh, 2015). For example, when parents participate during a child’s therapy the attendance is higher.  Also, strategies learned during therapy could also be utilized at home and other environments.  This could increase the effectiveness of therapy.

 

 

References

Ajdacic-Gross, V., Rodgers, S., Müller, M., Hengartner, M., Aleksandrowicz, A., Kawohl, W., … Preisig, M. (2016). Pure animal phobia is more specific than other specific phobias: epidemiological evidence from the Zurich Study, the ZInEP and the PsyCoLaus. European Archives of Psychiatry & Clinical Neuroscience266(6), 567–577. https://doi-org.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/10.1007/s00406-016-0687-4

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Haine-Schlagel, R., & Walsh, N. E. (2015). A review of parent participation engagement in child and family mental health treatment. Clinical child and family psychology review18(2), 133-50.

Phobias. International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. . Retrieved December 05, 2018 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/phobias

Steinhausen, H.-C., Jakobsen, H., Meyer, A., Jorgensen, P. M., & Lieb, R. (n.d.). Family Aggregation and Risk Factors in Phobic Disorders over Three-Generations in a Nation-Wide Study. PLOS ONE11(1). https://doi-org.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146591

3. Classmate (N. Jon)

Every child experiences a sense of fear or anxiety as part of normal childhood development (Flamez & Sheperis, 2015). Depending on where one is developmentally different fears or phobias may arise. Common fears in children are examples such as the dark, animals (such as dogs), and other people (such as strangers or Santa) (Flamez & Sheperis, 2015). However, sometimes those fears develop into phobias. In fact, a specific phobia “is the most common anxiety disorder in children and adolescents” (Flamez & Sheperis, 2015). Looking at the specific phobia of the Dental Phobia, I will explain three potential factors that may contribute to the development of such a phobia. Then, I will explain one way that I, as a professional counselor, might help parents or guardians support their child in overcoming a phobia of the dentist.

Dental Phobia

Dental Phobia, as defined by Seligman, Hovey, Chacon, & Ollendick (2017), “is a persistent and excessive fear of dental stimuli and procedures that result in avoidance or significant distress.” Fear of the dentist is considered a developmentally normal fear in young children, but when it progresses to the point that it begins to impact the quality of life for the child, a diagnosis of dental phobia should be assessed for. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th edition (DSM-V) classifies dental phobia as a specific phobia within blood-injection-injury (BII) phobia type (2013). It is important to note; however, that there is some discrepancy and discussion regarding its classification as evidence shows it has varying factors from a typical BII phobia.

 

Dental phobia presents itself in many ways, ranging from tantrums, excessive fidgeting, and even refusal of treatment (Sheligman et. al., 2017). In order to also be considered a phobia, and not just a fear, it must also be considered debilitating and shown to interfere with normal functioning (Flamez & Sheperis, 2015). This includes having an impact on a child’s health and possibly quality of life.

Three Factors

There are many factors to consider when looking at the reasons and causes for dental phobia. Most phobias are a result of direct and indirect learning experiences and most children grow out of them (Flamez & Sheperis, 2015). Dental phobia is no exception. Three factors that may contribute to the development of dental phobia is family/cultural beliefs, learned experiences, and media. Research shows anxiety, fear, and a painful experience associated with dental work is extremely common but that most children do not develop dental phobia because of it (Sheligman, et. al., 2017). It would appear that a painful experience early on with little positive exposure lays the foundation for potential dental phobia. In addition, the beliefs held by family and the surrounding culture plays a role as well (Sheligman, et. al., 2017). Parents or older siblings that have anxiety and fear regarding the dentist are likely to impact young children who may already have trepidation about such an experience. In addition, children in lower economic status tend to have higher rates of dental anxiety and fear, with a direct correlation being made to higher levels of dental issues such as tooth decay (Sheligman, et. al., 2017). This results in greater levels of painful experiences, which contributes to the development of a dental phobia. While little research exists with regard to the impact of media on dental phobia, it is not uncommon to find horror movies depicting the dentist as a sort of torture experience. Such exposure, especially is a young child, can contribute to conditioning the child with regard to beliefs about dental experiences.

Helping Parents

With research indicating that the number one contributing factor to dental phobia being painful and/or traumatizing direct experiences at an early age, parents play a large role in helping mitigate this phobia. Providing proper emotional support and encouragement, helping to educate and prepare the child for what to expect, and working through any anxiety or post-experience trauma can help a child understand, accept, process, and move through a negative experience. As a professional counselor, one way I could help parents who have a child already exhibiting signs of dental phobia would be to offer services to the child as well as the family. By helping equip the child and the parents with anxiety-reducing techniques, exposure therapy, and psychoeducation, I can help the family as a whole work together to help the child reduce and/or eliminate any dental related anxiety.

Resources

American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental

disorders(5 ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Burnham, J. J. (2009). Contemporary fears of children and adolescents: Coping and resiliency in the 21st Century. Journal of Counseling and Development, 87(1), 28–35. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

Flamez, B. & Sheperis, C. J. (2015). Diagnosing and treating children and adolescents: A guide for clinical and school settings. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Seligman, L. D.,

Hovey, J. D., Chacon, K., & Ollendick, T. H. (2017). Dental anxiety: An understudied problem in youth. Clinical Psychology Review, 55, 25–40. https://doi org.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.04.004

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Required Resources

Learning Resources

Please read and view (where applicable) the following Learning Resources before you complete this week’s assignments.

Readings

· Flamez, B. & Sheperis, C. J. (2015). Diagnosing and treating children and adolescents: A guide for clinical and school settings. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

  • Chapter 3 “Developing and        Evaluating Client Treatment Plans”
  • Chapter 10 “Anxiety        Disorders”
  • Burnham, J. J. (2009). Contemporary      fears of children and adolescents: Coping and resiliency in the 21st      Century. Journal of Counseling and Development87(1),      28–35.
    Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
  • Flatt, N., & King, N.      (2008). Building the case for brief psychointerventions in the treatment      of specific phobias in children and adolescents. BehaviourChange25(4),      191–200.
    Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
  • Document:Child and Adolescent Counseling Cases: Fears and Phobias Click for more options
  • Document:Treatment Plan Guidelines Click for more options
  • DSM-5 BridgeDocument: Fears and Phobias Click for more options

Explain why you have created each question and what you hope to gain from it for your research process.

An African-American mother is concerned that her child may have an attention deficit problem. She goes to the teacher, who supports her concerns, and they go to the assistant principal requesting testing for a possible learning disorder. The mother asks if the child could be given an individual intelligence test that can screen for such problems, and the assistant principal states, “Those tests have been banned for minority students because of concerns about cross-cultural bias.” The mother states that she will give her permission for such testing, but the assistant principal says, “I’m sorry, we’ll have to make do with some other tests and with observation.” is this ethical? Professional? Legal? If you were a school counselor or school psychologist and this mother came to see you, what would you tell her?

 

1. Identify the problem or dilemma:

2. Identify the potential issues involved:

3. Review the relevant ethical guidelines:

4. Know the applicable laws and regulations 

5. Obtain consultation 

6. Consider possible and probable courses of action:

7. Enumerate the consequences of various decisions:

Create five questions which can be used within a survey research process to identify if there is an existing sense of community within your local community. Explain why you have created each question and what you hope to gain from it for your research process.

Create your response into a word doc using APA format with a minimum of 550-750-word count. Include in text citations which will connect to the factual points from the textbook, and include the textbook reference citation at the end of the document.

Which female reproductive organs normally respond to CRH? What effect does this hormone have on these organs? What is the role of this hormonal signal in regulating reproduction? Use Table 2 and do a little outside research to look up any unfamiliar terms.

Module 5 – Case

STRESS EFFECTS ON THE EXCRETORY AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

Note: If you have trouble viewing some of the course materials, install Quicktime and the Adobe Shockwave Player, both of which can be downloaded free from the Internet.

STOP!!! YOU MUST HAVE COMPLETED THE TUTORIALS AND VIEWED ALL LINKS ON THE MODULE 5 HOME PAGE IN ORDER TO COMPLETE THIS CASE ASSIGNMENT!!!!

Case Assignment

Now that you have reviewed the anatomy and physiology of reproduction, let’s continue to investigate the influence of the stress response on human reproductive function. We will begin by investigating the interactions between hormones responsible for regulating female reproductive cycles and the stress hormones.

First read some background on stress and reproduction in the article, “Stress puts double whammy on reproductive system,” By Robert Sanders, UC Berkeley News. 15 June 2009.

Next read the review by Kalantaridou, N.S., et al. Stress and the female reproductive system. Journal of Reproductive Immunology. 2004.62:61–68, and address the following questions in paragraph format:

  1. What term is used in this article to describe the regulatory axis of the reproductive system? What is the principle regulatory hormone for this axis?
  2. What effects does the HPA axis have on the female reproductive system? What two hormones are described in this article and what are the general effects of these hormones on female reproductive organs?
  3. Which female reproductive organs normally respond to CRH? What effect does this hormone have on these organs? What is the role of this hormonal signal in regulating reproduction? Use Table 2 and do a little outside research to look up any unfamiliar terms.
  4. Recall the information that you have reviewed in previous modules about unregulated cortisol and stress hormone release on the other systems of the body. What are the implications of dysregulation of CRH and glucocorticoids for human reproduction? Describe the physiological and psychological effects that these hormones can have relative to female reproduction.

Assignment Expectations

Organize this assignment by answering the questions above in four paragraphs that align with the numbering above. Answer each question using complete sentences that relate back to the question. Be sure to include a references section at the end of your assignment that lists the websites and articles used above and any additional resources you used to research your answers. Follow the format provided in the Background page.

 

Stress puts double whammy on reproductive system

By Robert Sanders, Media Relations | 15 June 2009

BERKELEY — University of California, Berkeley, researchers have found what they think is a critical and, until now, missing piece of the puzzle about how stress causes sexual dysfunction and infertility.

Scientists know that stress boosts levels of stress hormones – glucocorticoids such as cortisol – that inhibit the body’s main sex hormone, gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), and subsequently suppresses sperm count, ovulation and sexual activity.

 

Diagram of stress's effect on hormonesIn the reproductive system, the brain’s hypothalamus (blue oval) produces GnRH, which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce the peripheral hormones luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone which in turn stimulate production of testosterone and estradiol and affect sexual behavior. Stress (right) makes the adrenal gland produce glucocorticoids, which act directly on the hypothalamus to suppress GnRH production (red X). UC Berkeley researchers have now found that glucocorticoids also boost hypothalamic GnIH production (red star), which acts to reduce GnRH production as well as to directly lower pituitary secretion of sex hormones (red arrow), thereby suppressing the entire reproductive system. (Elizabeth Kirby/UC Berkeley)

The new research shows that stress also increases brain levels of a reproductive hormone named gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone, or GnIH, discovered nine years ago in birds and known to be present in humans and other mammals. This small protein hormone, a so-called RFamide-related peptide (RFRP), puts the brakes on reproduction by directly inhibiting GnRH.

 

The common thread appears to be the glucocorticoid stress hormones, which not only suppress GnRH but boost the suppressor GnIH – a double whammy for the reproductive system.

“We know stress affects the top-tier reproductive hormone, GnRH, but we show, in fact, that stress also affects another high-level hormone, GnIH, to cause reproductive dysfunction,” said lead author Elizabeth Kirby, a graduate student at UC Berkeley’s Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute. “This work provides a new target for researchers, a new way to think about infertility and dysfunction. The more we know, the more we can look for ways to treat it.”

The results will be published the week of June 15 in the Online Early Edition of the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS)

The conclusions are based on experiments in rats and inferences from the effects of the hormone in birds. But if this new reproductive hormone acts the same way in all mammals, researchers say the finding could not only change the way physicians look at human reproductive problems, but also affect how breeders approach animal husbandry and captive breeding programs for endangered species.

“There is a growing body of work that points to GnIH as being a big player in the inhibition of reproduction in mammals,” said co-author George Bentley, UC Berkeley assistant professor of integrative biology. “We didn’t have any hint of this stress effect nine years ago, when GnIH was first discovered.”

In humans, chronic stress can lead to a drop in sex drive as well as a drop in fertility. Even the stress of infertility treatments can block their effectiveness, as evidenced by many anecdotes about couples conceiving children after the failure of assisted reproduction.

Animal breeding also is affected by stress. Zoos, in particular, have difficulty getting some animals to reproduce in captivity, Bentley said.

Based on animal experiments, researchers attribute much of this stress effect on sexual function to an increase in glucocorticoids – stress hormones – produced by the adrenal gland. In the brain, these glucocorticoids suppress the main reproductive hormone, GnRH, which in turn causes a shut-down of the release of the gonadotropins luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone by the pituitary, and then a suppression of testosterone, estradiol and sexual behavior.

In 2000, however, a new reproductive hormone was discovered in birds and dubbed gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH) because it had the opposite effect of GnRH – it inhibited release of gonadotropins, thereby suppressing reproduction.

“It’s very adaptive to not be wasting resources on reproduction during times of acute stress, to just shut down reproduction for 24 hours or so until the stress is gone,” said co-author Daniela Kaufer, a UC Berkeley assistant professor of integrative biology who looks at how stress affects molecular processes in the brain. “These functions go back in evolution a long way.”

Because of the negative effects of GnIH on reproduction, Bentley, who helped establish the critical role played by GnIH in birds, teamed up with Kaufer and Kirby to explore whether stress might affect GnIH levels in the brain. The homologous hormones in mammals have been dubbed RFamide-related peptides, or RFRPs.

Kirby showed that acutely stressed rats showed increased RFRP levels for several hours, but that levels returned to normal by the next day. Chronically stressed rats, however, were left with longer-term elevations of RFRP levels in the dorsomedial hypothalamus area of the brain, and suppression of activity in the reproductive axis – the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal hormone cascade – that is associated with lowered sexual activity.

“With chronic stress, glucocorticoids went sky high,” Kirby said.

To determine the role of glucocorticoids, Kirby removed the adrenal glands of male rats, eliminating the source of the hormone. Without adrenals, stress no longer affected RFRP levels in the brain. The researchers also showed that the cells that produce RFRP have receptors for glucocorticoids, a clear indication that these stress hormones can directly affect the cells that produce RFRP.

“Critically, we show that RFRP neurons express the receptors for glucocorticoids, which are released from the adrenal glands in response to stress, and that removal of the adrenal glands prevents the stress-induced, up-regulation of RFRP,” Bentley said. “Thus, we believe we have identified an entirely novel pathway for stress-induced reproductive dysfunction.”

Kirby noted that adrenal hormones are critical to survival, so removing the gland and thus glucocorticoids is not a solution to chronic stress.

However, Kaufer said, it may be possible to block GnIH to reduce some of the effects of stress on reproduction.

The researchers plan to confirm the results in female rats and investigate further the role of GnIH in reproduction.

The work was supported by the National Science Foundation. Other coauthors of the PNAS paper are graduate students Anna C. Geraghty and Takayoshi Ubuka of UC Berkeley’s Department of Integrative Biology. Kaufer, Kirby and Bentley are all members of the Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute.

 

Stress and the female reproductive system

S.N. Kalantaridou a, A. Makrigiannakis b, E. Zoumakis c, G.P. Chrousos c,d,∗

a Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Reproductive Endocrinology, University of Ioannina, School of Medicine, Panepistimiou Avenue, 45500 Ioannina, Greece
b Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Crete, School of Medicine, 7110 Heraklion, Greece c Pediatric and Reproductive Endocrinology Branch, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Building 10, Room 9D42, Bethesda, MD 20892-1583, USA
d 1st Department of Pediatrics, University of Athens, School of Medicine, Athens, Greece

Received in revised form 25 September 2003; accepted 25 September 2003

Abstract

The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, when activated by stress, exerts an inhibitory effect on the female reproductive system. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) inhibits hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion, and glucocorticoids inhibit pituitary luteiniz- ing hormone and ovarian estrogen and progesterone secretion. These effects are responsible for the “hypothalamic” amenorrhea of stress, which is observed in anxiety and depression, malnutrition, eating disorders and chronic excessive exercise, and the hypogonadism of the Cushing syndrome. In addition, corticotropin-releasing hormone and its receptors have been identified in most female reproductive tissues, including the ovary, uterus, and placenta. Furthermore, corticotropin-releasing hormone is secreted in peripheral inflammatory sites where it exerts inflammatory actions. Repro- ductive corticotropin-releasing hormone is regulating reproductive functions with an inflammatory component, such as ovulation, luteolysis, decidualization, implantation, and early maternal toler- ance. Placental CRH participates in the physiology of pregnancy and the onset of labor. Circulating placental CRH is responsible for the physiologic hypercortisolism of the latter half of pregnancy. Postpartum, this hypercortisolism is followed by a transient adrenal suppression, which may explain the blues/depression and increased autoimmune phenomena observed during this period.
© 2004 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Decidualization; Implantation; Luteolysis; Maternal tolerance; Ovulation; Parturition; Reproductive corticotropin-releasing hormone; Stress

∗ Correspondingauthor.Tel.:+1-301-496-5800;fax:+1-301-402-0884. E-mail address: chrousog@mail.nih.gov (G.P. Chrousos).

0165-0378/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jri.2003.09.004

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62 S.N. Kalantaridou et al. / Journal of Reproductive Immunology 62 (2004) 61–68

1. Introduction

The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis exerts an inhibitory effect on the female reproductive system (Chrousos et al., 1998). In addition, the hypothalamic neuropeptide corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and its receptors have been identified in most fe- male reproductive tissues, including the ovary, uterus, and placenta. Furthermore, CRH is secreted in peripheral inflammatory sites where it exerts strong inflammatory actions. Thus, “reproductive” CRH is a form of “tissue” CRH (CRH found in peripheral tissues), analogous to the “immune” CRH (Chrousos, 1995). “Reproductive” CRH is regulating key reproductive functions with an inflammatory component, such as ovulation, luteolysis, implantation, and parturition.

2. Interactions between the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and the female reproductive system

The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis along with the arousal and autonomic nervous systems constitute the stress system. Activation of the stress system leads to behavioral and peripheral changes that improve the ability of the organism to adjust homeostasis, and increases its chance for survival (Chrousos and Gold, 1992).

The principal regulators of the HPA axis are CRH and arginine–vasopressin (AVP), both produced by parvicellular neurons of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus into the hypophyseal portal system (Chrousos and Gold, 1992). CRH and AVP synergistically stimulate pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion and, subsequently, cor- tisol secretion by the adrenal cortex.

The female reproductive system is regulated by the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis. The principal regulator of the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis is gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), produced by neurons of the preoptic and arcuate nucleus of the hypotha- lamus into the hypophyseal portal system (Ferin, 1996). GnRH stimulates pituitary follicle stimulating and luteinizing hormone secretion and, subsequently, estradiol and progesterone secretion by the ovary.

The HPA axis, when activated by stress, exerts an inhibitory effect on the female repro- ductive system (Table 1). Corticotropin-releasing hormone and CRH-induced proopiome- lanocortin peptides, such as -endorphin, inhibit hypothalamic GnRH secretion (Chen et al.,

1992). In addition, glucocorticoids suppress gonadal axis function at the hypothalamic, pi- tuitary and uterine level (Sakakura et al., 1975; Rabin et al., 1990). Indeed, glucocorticoid

Table 1
Effect of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis on the female reproductive system

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Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

CRH -Endorphin Cortisol

Effect on the female reproductive system

Inhibition of GnRH secretion
Inhibition of GnRH secretion
Inhibition of GnRH and LH secretion, inhibition of ovarian estrogen and progesterone biosynthesis, inhibition of estrogen actions

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administration significantly reduces the peak luteinizing hormone response to intravenous GnRH, suggesting an inhibitory effect of glucocorticoids on the pituitary gonadotroph (Sakakura et al., 1975). Furthermore, glucocorticoids inhibit estradiol-stimulated uterine growth (Rabin et al., 1990).

These effects of the HPA axis are responsible for the “hypothalamic” amenorrhea of stress, which is observed in anxiety and depression, malnutrition, eating disorders and chronic excessive exercise, and the hypogonadism of the Cushing syndrome (Chrousos et al., 1998).

On the other hand, estrogen directly stimulates the CRH gene promoter and the central noradrenergic system (Vamvakopoulos and Chrousos, 1993), which may explain women’s mood cycles and manifestations of autoimmune/allergic and inflammatory diseases that follow estradiol fluctuations. Indeed, suicide attempts and allergic bronchial asthma attacks significantly increase when the plasma estradiol level reaches its lowest level, i.e. during the late luteal and early follicular phases of the menstrual cycle (Fourestie et al., 1986; Skobeloff et al., 1996).

3. “Reproductive” corticotropin-releasing hormone

CRH and its receptors have been identified in several female reproductive organs, in- cluding the ovaries, the endometrial glands, decidualized endometrial stroma, placental tro- phoblast, syncytiotrophoblast and decidua (Mastorakos et al., 1994, 1996; Makrigiannakis et al., 1995a; Grino et al., 1987; Clifton et al., 1998; Frim et al., 1988; Petraglia et al., 1992; Jones et al., 1989; Grammatopoulos and Chrousos, 2002). “Reproductive” CRH partici- pates in various reproductive functions with an “aseptic” inflammatory component, such as ovulation, luteolysis, implantation and parturition (Table 2).

Ovarian CRH is primarily found in the theca and stroma and also in the cytoplasm of the ovum (Mastorakos et al., 1993, 1994). Corticotropin-releasing hormone type 1 (CRHR-1)

Table 2
Reproductive corticotropin-releasing hormone, potential physiologic roles and potential pathogenic effects

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Reproductive CRH Ovarian CRH

Uterine CRH

Placental CRH

Potential physiologic roles

Follicular maturation Ovulation
Luteolysis
Suppression of female sex steroid production

Decidualization Blastocyst implantation Early maternal tolerance

Labor
Maternal hypercortisolism Fetoplacental circulation Fetal adrenal steroidogenesis

Potential pathogenic effects

Premature ovarian failure (↑ secretion) Anovulation (↓ secretion)
Corpus luteum dysfunction (↓ secretion) Ovarian dysfunction (↓ secretion)

Infertility (↓ secretion)
Recurrent spontaneous abortion (↓ secretion)

Premature labor (↑ secretion)
Delayed labor (↓ secretion)
Preeclampsia and eclampsia (↑ secretion)

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receptors (similar to those of the anterior pituitary) are also detected in the ovarian stroma and theca and in the cumulus oophorus of the graafian follicle. In vitro experiments have shown that CRH exerts an inhibitory effect on ovarian steroidogenesis in a dose-dependent, interleukin (IL)-1-mediated manner (Calogero et al., 1996; Ghizzoni et al., 1997). This finding suggests that ovarian CRH has anti-reproductive actions that might be related to the earlier ovarian failure observed in women exposed to high psychosocial stress (Bromberger et al., 1997). Interestingly, CRH and its receptors have also been identified in Leydig cells of the testis, where CRH exerts inhibitory actions on testosterone biosynthesis (Fabri et al., 1990).

There is no detectable CRH in oocytes of primordial follicles in human ovaries, whereas there is abundant expression of the CRH and CRHR-1 genes in mature follicles, suggesting that CRH may play auto/paracrine roles in follicular maturation (Mastorakos et al., 1993, 1994; Asakura et al., 1997). However, polycystic ovaries present diminished amounts of CRH immunoreactivity, suggesting that decreased ovarian CRH might be related to the anovulation of polycystic ovarian syndrome (Mastorakos et al., 1994). Finally, the concen- tration of CRH is higher in the premenopausal than the postmenopausal ovaries, indicating that ovarian CRH may be related to normal ovarian function during the reproductive life span (Zoumakis et al., 2001).

The human endometrium also contains CRH (Mastorakos et al., 1996; Makrigiannakis et al., 1995a). Epithelial cells are the main source of endometrial CRH, while stroma does not express it, unless it differentiates to decidua (Mastorakos et al., 1996;Makrigiannakis et al., 1995a,b;Ferrari et al., 1995). In addition, CRH receptors type 1 are present in both epithelial and stroma cells of human endometrium (Di Blasio et al., 1997) and in human myometrium (Hillhouse et al., 1993), suggesting a local effect of endometrial CRH. Estro- gens and glucocorticoids inhibit and prostaglandin E2 stimulates the promoter of human CRH gene in transfected human endometrial cells, suggesting that the endometrial CRH gene is under the control of these agents (Makrigiannakis et al., 1996). The endometrial glands are full of CRH during both the proliferative and the secretory phases of the cycle (Mastorakos et al., 1996; Makrigiannakis et al., 1995a). However, the concentration of CRH is significantly higher in the secretory phase, associating endometrial CRH with intrauter- ine phenomena of the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle, such as decidualization and implantation (Zoumakis et al., 2001).

Early in pregnancy, the implantation sites in rat endometrium contain 3.5-fold higher concentrations of CRH compared to the interimplantation regions (Makrigiannakis et al., 1995b). Furthermore, human trophoblast and decidualized endometrial cells express Fas ligand (FasL), a pro-apoptotic molecule. These findings suggest that intrauterine CRH may participate in blastocyst implantation, while FasL may assist with maternal immune tolerance to the semi-allograft embryo. A nonpeptidic CRH receptor type 1-specific an- tagonist (antalarmin) decreased the expression of FasL by human trophoblasts, suggesting that CRH regulates the pro-apoptotic potential of these cells in an auto/paracrine fash- ion (Makrigiannakis et al., 2001). Invasive trophoblasts promoted apoptosis of activated Fas-expressing human T-lymphocytes, an effect potentiated by CRH and inhibited by CRH antagonist. In support of these findings, female rats treated with the CRH antag- onist in the first 6 days of gestation had a dose-dependent decrease of endometrial im- plantation sites and markedly diminished endometrial FasL expression (Makrigiannakis

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et al., 2001). Thus, locally produced CRH promotes implantation and maintenance of early pregnancy.

The human placenta contains CRH as well. Placental CRH is produced in syncytiotro- phoblast cells, in placental decidua and fetal membranes (Riley et al., 1991; Jones et al., 1989). Placental CRH expression increases as much as 100 times during the last 6–8 weeks of pregnancy (Frim et al., 1988). The biologic activity of CRH in maternal plasma is at- tenuated by the presence of a circulating CRH binding protein (CRH-BP), produced by the liver and placenta (Challis et al., 1995; Linton et al., 1993). Nevertheless, CRH-BP concentrations decrease during the last 6 weeks of pregnancy, leading to elevations of free CRH (Challis et al., 1995; Linton et al., 1993). Thus, placental CRH is responsible for the hypercortisolism observed during the latter half of pregnancy. This hypercortisolism is followed by a transient suppression of hypothalamic CRH secretion in the postpartum period, which may explain the blues/depression and autoimmune phenomena seen during this period (Chrousos et al., 1998; Magiakou et al., 1996; Elenkov et al., 2001).

Placental CRH induces dilation of uterine and fetal placental vessels through nitric oxide synthetase activation, and stimulation of smooth muscle contractions through prostaglandin F2alpha and E2 production by fetal membranes and placental decidua (Chrousos, 1999; Grammatopoulos and Hillhouse, 1999). Placental CRH secretion is stimulated by glucocor- ticoids, inflammatory cytokines, and anoxic conditions, including the stress of preeclampsia or eclampsia (Chrousos et al., 1998; Robinson et al., 1988; Goland et al., 1995), whereas it is repressed by estrogens (Ni et al., 2002).

CRH may be the placental clock triggering the onset of parturition (McLean et al., 1995; Challis et al., 2000; Majzoub and Karalis, 1999). Of note, experimental data have shown that CRH receptor type 1 antagonism in the sheep fetus, using antalarmin, can delay the onset of parturition (Cheng-Chan et al., 1998).

4. Conclusions

The HPA axis exerts an inhibitory effect on the female reproductive system. CRH inhibits hypothalamic GnRH secretion, whereas glucocorticoids suppress pituitary LH and ovarian estrogen and progesterone secretion and render target tissues resistant to estradiol (Chrousos et al., 1998). The HPA axis is responsible for the “hypothalamic” amenorrhea of stress, which is observed in anxiety and depression, malnutrition, eating disorders and chronic excessive exercise, and the hypogonadism of the Cushing syndrome (Chrousos et al., 1998).

In addition, CRH and its receptors have been identified in female reproductive organs, including the ovaries, the endometrium and the placenta. “Reproductive” CRH partici- pates in various reproductive functions with an inflammatory component (Chrousos et al., 1998). Ovarian CRH participates in the regulation of steroidogenesis, follicular maturation, ovulation and luteolysis. Endometrial CRH participates in the decidualization, blastocyst implantation, and early maternal tolerance. Placental CRH, which is secreted mostly during the latter half of pregnancy, may be responsible for the onset of labor and the physiologic hy- percortisolism seen during this period. This hypercorticolism causes a transient postpartum adrenal suppression, which may explain the blues/depression and autoimmune phenomena of the postpartum period (Magiakou et al., 1996; Elenkov et al., 2001).

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