The Rise of the Ottoman Empire

AnTr+”rABU,L * F’ATIH The History of the Life and

Accomplishments of Mehmed II, Conqueror of Istanbul, by Tursun B”g. Facsimile Text, Ayusofya Library MS, published with an English Summary, Glossary, Notes and Index bv Halil Inalcik

‘A and Rhoads Murph”y 6t’

In preparing this summary, we have attempted to present as fully as possible all of the information of historical significance while leaving aside for the most part literary embroidery and verse. Care was however taken to include in the summary all relevant expressions, terminology, and personal and place names. Nevertheless, it is clearly impossible to consider the English summary as ever being capable of taking the place of the original text. The English summary starts only with the twenty-sixth folio where the author commences the chronological part of his history. The first part of his history, referred to by Tursun Beg as the dibdce (text, 5a-25a) deals with general principles of state and rulership. This prefatory section of Tursun Beg’s history has been summarized, along with commentary, in the introduction to this book.

This volume also contains a glossary which was prepared with the intention of providing an aid to the understanding of difficult terminology or archaic expressions in old Ottoman. A general index lists all terms and personal and place names occurring in the original text along with brief explanations where necessary. In the glossary and index, as well as in the summary translation of the text, we have used a simplified version of the Encyclopaedia of Islam transliteration system.

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MEHMED THE CONQUEROR

T h e d a t e s i n t h e c h r o n o l o g y t a b l e w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h t h e

help of outside sources. Tursun Beg’s chronology is far from

adequate. He often fails to mention the date of occurrence of

important events, and on some occasions he even gives inaccurate

dates. In preparing the map, we chose selectively those place

names

*hor” location would, in our opinion, be difficult to establish through

the use of modern maPS-

THE HISTORY OF MEHMED THE CONQUEROR

Folios 26b-l8lb

Pr : Printed text of M. ‘Arif

AY : AYa SofYa MS

l. The Return of Suhan Murd.d to the ThronePr3t-33lAv26b-28b

Mehmed’s father Murid had voluntarily abdicated the throne in

favor of his son. However, Murid’s replacement on the throne was

carried out too hastily; and $alil Pasha, who attained the vizirate

through right of inheritance and through his own ability, was of the

opinion that, although the Sultan was young’ he would soon be

carried away by the desire to act independently. Furthermore, he

thought that two actual rulers in one state would inevitably be a

,orrrJ” of trouble. Mur6d’s close associates were all striving to have

him reinstated as sultan. Murad left all of these matters to the

discretion of $alil Pasha. At this juncture, the Hungarians had

advanced as fai us Varna. $alil Pasha, with the approval of the army

commanders, announced to Mehmed that it was necessary to recall

his father Mur6d to command the troops, with the promise that the

sultanate would again be his. Mehmed reluctantly abdicated the

throne. With his tutot (ata-beg) Zaganoz Beg, he set out for Manisa’

According to one interpretation, he continued to claim powers as

sultan, recognizing his father only as his lieutenant (ftd.’irn-mal-tdm) on

the rhrone. In Mutrarrem 855 (February 1451), sultan Mur-ad died.

2. and 3. The Accession of Mehmed the Conqueror and’ the $araman

CamPaign Pr 33-40/AY 28b-34b

Mehmed was enthroned on Thursday, 16 Mutrarrem 855 (February

18, 145i). In the spring of that year Dayr I.(araca Beg’ the

governor-general of Rumelia, was left with the Rumelian troops on

!,rutd drty at Sofya against the possibility of an attack from Hungary’

SUMMARY TRANSLATION

while the Sultan himself set out with the standing army and

ftapu-fualftt. troops from Anatolia against Karaman-oglu Ibrlhim. The ostensible reason for the campaign was lbrdhim’s failure to observe the rules as a vassal at the time of Mehmed’s accession. When Mehmed made camp with his army in Alqehir, Ibrdhim fled to Tag-Ili

and sent Mewlind Weli to negotiate peace terms. He agreed to give

up Algehir, Beggehri, and SeydiEehri, including the territories surrounding them. In addition, he agreed to send every year a certain number of soldiers to serve in the Ottoman army. Pr 35/Av 30b

On his return from this campaign the Janissaries made a demonstration. Standing with their arms in two rows on either side of the road, they shouted the following words at him: “This was our sultan’s first campaign, and he should reward us with the customary bonus.” This uncalled-for display by the soldiers angered Mehmed. When the diutdn was convened, he summonedthe officers and after a severe beating dismissed them from the ranks. As a result of this punishment, the Janissaries came to fear the ire of Mehmed and never again during his sultanate did they dare rebel against him. Following this incident Mehmed returned to Edirne. Pr 36/Av 31a

4. The Construction of the Fortress of Bogaz-KesenPr 36-41 /Av 31a-36a

Mehmed was possessed with the idea of conquering Istanbul and constantly insisted on the necessity of taking the city without delay. Senior statesmen spoke of the strength of the fortifications and of the

bad consequences that would arise from a prolonged siege of the

city, but Mehmed would not listen and immediately began preparations for the siege. With this intention he ordered the building of a fortress on the Bosphorus. ( D e s c r i p t i o n o f I s t a n b u l , G a l a t a , a n d t h e B o s p h o r u s )

t ” i t t 3 l o , o u

It was intolerable that Istanbul, surrounded by the lands of Islam, should survive under a Christian ruler, the so-called $ay;er-i Ril.m, especially since he gave protection within the city walls to pretenders to the Ottoman throne and constantly tried to stir up conflict in the Ottoman territories. In the spring of 856 (1452) Sultan Mehmed came to the spot where the fortress was to be built.P’39/Av34b (Description of the Fortress of Rumeli-fligerr) Pr 40/Av 35a

A small castle with twenty portals opening onto the sea was built below Rumeli-$is5n close to the shore and at each opening a cannon was placed. Across the water below the fortress of Yenice-f;ale a similar small castle was built and the cannons emplaced. In this way

MEHMED THE CONQUEROR

the straits were effectively blocked so that unauthorized passage

between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea was now impossible’

The sultan gave up all thoughts of relaxation, and through his efforts

the work “iR,r*”ii’giEdn

was completed in a short time’Pr41 /Av36a

5. The Conquest of Istanbul Pr41-58/Av36a-51 b

After the construction of Rumeli-$ig-an had been completed, the

Sultan set out for his capital, Edirne. Before the army set out for

Edirne, a scuffle took place between some shepherds and a group of

ottoman soldiers. The people inside the city, mistaking the scuffle for

the beginning of hostilities’ shut the gates of the city and prepared

themsJves for battle. Some of the Sultan’s commanders who

happened to be on leave in the city at that time remained within the

walls. The Prince (Tekaur) treated them well and returned them with

an envoy to apologize to the Sultan but Mehmed was not amenable

and e*pres.”J hit hostility by voicing the.challenge: “Either surren-

der the city or stand readyto do battle.”P’42lAv 36a11″ then returned to

E d i r n e .

In the spring of 85? (1453)’ he left Edirne with the intention of

capturing i.,u.tUr-,t. He ordered the large cannons to be dragged by

th” ,rorror.tt 42tAY 37b The master naftftd.bs, stoneborers from the mines

in it,r*eli, joined the army while the naval forces waited in

Gelibolu. Pr a-s I ny 38a The Sultan proceeded by land and the navy by

sea. According to custom, the day that camp was to be made near

Istanbul the army was ordered by regiment into rows’ He ranged at

the center of the army around his own person the white-capped

Janissary archers, the Turkish and European crossbowmen’ and the

musketeers and cannonn eers (Qarbzen)’ The red-capped’azebs were

placed on his right and left, joined at the rear by the caval-

,y. t’44lAv 38b Thus organized, the army marched in formation on

Istanbul. On the other side, the Byzantine emperor had received

reinforcements from Christian rulers in Europe’ He sent these

armoured, mounted knights in front of the gates to meet the

approaching army of the Sultan. The Muslim forces pushed them

U””t *ittti” the walls, and finally the Sultan arrived on the scene at

the outer walls. According to ottoman practice, the sultan pitched his

large tent at the middle of the ranks. The Janissaries set up their

t”rrt. in the form of a circle surrounding the sultan’s . The Beglerbegi

of Anatolia, Islra! Beg, formerly one of the vizirs of Sultan Murid’

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SUMMARY TRANSLATION

took up his place on the right wing with the Anatolian forces, while

the Beglerbegi of Rumeli, Dayr Karaca Beg, uncle of Prince ‘Al-aeddin, was on the left. Trenches were dug for emplacing the

cannon, and catapults were set up in several places.Pta6/Avaoa 16″t set up barricades and vaulted bunkers (mancu-yerleri and, toituz-

dan’tlar) and showed the miners their places. Hostilities immediately

broke out in front ofthe gates.

One difficulty, however, was the fact that the Golden Horn was

closed off. Sultan Mehmed ordered that some of the smaller ships and galleys should be dragged over the hill behind Galata into the Golden Horn. Thus forced to guard the sector of the walls on the Golden Horn as well, the enemy forces would necessarily be spread

out. So, as ordered, the ships and galleys were decked out with

banners of every color and dragged overland to the Golden Horn. By

lashing the boats together a secure bridge was formed over which the soldiers could cross, and the fortress was surrounded on three sides.

Meanwhile, the cannons and catapults continued to bombard the walls. The shock of the balls shook and rent the walls. Fighting continued every day from sunrise to sunset, but the defenders placed their trust in the firmness of the fortifications even after several towers were completely destroyed by cannon fire. At this stage, two coques (kiike) filled with arms and reinforcements arrived from Europe.P’ 47 t Av 42a At that point the soldiers and naval troops of the Sultan were busily making preparations for the dragging of the ships over to the Colden Horn. With the aid of a favorable wind, the coques began to approach very quickly. The admiral Balta-o$lu Siileymin Beg sent against them all the ships he could gather, and a great battle took place in which the – Ottomans were defeated. The Greeks opened up the barrier across the Golden Horn and let in the coques. Pr 481 AY 42b

After this naval defeat the Muslims were distressed and lost hope, but in fact the arrival ofthe coques turned out to be a helping factor in the Ottomans’ final victory. By that time, the walls facing the Janissaries and the Sultan’s soldiers had been destroyed and paths prepared to the trenches. The Greeks feared that the fortress would be taken from this direction and wished to be responsible themselves for its defense. However, the European troops who had come as reinforcements demanded that the defense of this area be given to them, otherwise threatening to withdraw their support. Fearing that

M E H M E D T H E C O N Q U E R O R

they would indeed desert the cause if he did not give in, the Emperor

granted their wish. This, in turn, caused discontent among the

Greeks in the city and the forces defending the city fell info/disunity.

The Sultan proclaimed a general assault and gave the troops

p e r m i s s i o n t o t a k e b o o t y i n t h e c i t y . P r a e / A v 4 3 a 4 , n i g h t t h e s o l d i e r s

reached the walls from the trenches and, against the defenders on the

walls, attempted to climb up under the protection of their shields. At

daybreak the Sultan approached on horseback and the attack on the

fortress began in earnest. The cannons began to fire, then the battle

cry was sounded and the general assault was underway. The

attackers proceeded to rain arrows on the defenderslt 50/Av aab 1tt ,1’t”

breaches which had been opened by the cannon fire, soldiers fought

breast to breast and sword to sword. The enemy threw Greek fire on

the attackers. As the battle proceeded in this fashion, in the section

where the cannons had opened breaches in the walls, the European

troops met the Ottoman troops in front of the smaller outer walls. The

enemy commander arrived at this place and, while he was struggling with an Ottoman soldier on top of the tower, another soldier pierced his belly from below.Pr 5.1 /Av

05″ Wh”.t they saw that their commander had been wounded, the enemy troops were overcome. They tried to escape by fleeing into the inner fortresses, but the defenders had barred the gate. Left trapped between the walls, they were all put to the sword. The Ottoman troops immediately stormed the inner walls and pushed back the defenders. The rest of the army then began to spread out into the city by means of the breach in the wall while the enemy troops fled before them.

While the Sultan’s standing army, the ftapu leulu, was achieving this victory, the Anatolian, Rumelian, and navy troops continued to fight unaware of the new developments. The Byzantine Emperor and his retinue were reduced to panic when they saw the Janissaries so close behind them, and they too began to flee.Pr52tAv46b Some of them shut themselves in a tower while others perished charging their horses desperately against the Ottoman troops. Still others were taken prisoner.

At that juncture the Emperor was stealthily fleeing towards the Golden Horn with the intention of escaping in one of the ships. He was met on the way by a group of ,azebs. This group of ,azebs had entered the city with a band of Janissaries, and later, becoming separated from them, had wandered into a side street where they met

36

SUMMARY TRANSLATION

the Emperor with his retinue. A desperate battle ensued. The Emperor’s horse slipped as he was attacking a wounded ‘azeb,

rvhereupon the ‘azeb pulled himself together and cut off the Emperor’s head. Pt 53tAv 47a When they saw this, the rest of the ene- my troops lost hope and the ‘azebs managed to kill or capture most of them. A great quantity of money and precious stones in the posses- sion of the Emperor’s personal retinue was dlso seized. P( 54tAv 48a

After having completely overcome the enemy, the soldiers began to plunder the city. They enslaved boys and girls and took silver and gold vessels, precious stones, and all sorts of valuable goods and fabrics from the imperial palace and the houses of the rich. In this fashion many people were delivered from poverty and made rich. Every tent was filled with handsome boys and beautiful g i r l s . P t s 5 / A Y 4 8 b

Then the gates of the fortress were opened and Sultan Mehmed toured the city with a group of commanders and religious dignitaries in his retinue. He visited the great buildings and bazaars and particularly expressed his desire to see Hagia Sofia. Over the years this church had deteriorated so that at this time onlv its dome was left s t a n d i n s . (Description of Hagia Sofia) er so-s7 / Av 50a-51 a

When the Sultan returned to his headquarters from this tour, a council was held. There the prominent Byzantines were brought into his presence. He ordered some of them executed while others were spared for practical purposes. He appointed Kanqtrran Siileymdn Beg governor of Istanbul and entrusted to him the work of reconstructing the city. 6. (Reconstruction of Istanbul) Pr 58-68/Av 51 b-61a

7 . The Capture of Enoz (Ainos) and Tasoz (Thasos), and the Serbian Campaign Pr 68-70/AY 61a-63b

In the middle of winter Mehmed ordered the palace force and the regular troops of his Porte (ftapu fualftt) together with the Janissaries to proceed to Edirne. Because it was not customary to be called for duty at this season, they resented the order and suffered many hardships along the way because of the cold. The reason for calling for a campaign at this time was his decision to conquer Enoz and Tagoz. As an Ottoman vassal, their lord was permitted to get shares of the revenues from the salt mines and other sources which were due to the Ottoman central treasury. He pretended to support the

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