Assumptions About Psychological Testing And Assessment

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Assumptions About Psychological Testing and Assessment

In the unit introduction, you read about the influence that your history and previous experiences with tests may have on your perception of them at the start of this course. Remember to set aside these perceptions as you enter the course and learn about tests and their measurement. Remain cognizant of them as you proceed so they do not prevent you from learning about tests and, perhaps, change your mind, either way, about them. Additionally, in your readings from the Psychological Testing and Assessment text, you were introduced to seven basic assumptions about psychological assessment. Identify the one assumption that was the most difficult for you to accept based on your current understanding or previous experiences with testing.

In your post:

  • Identify the assumption by number and title that presented the most questions for you. (Include the number and title in your subject line of the discussion thread when you post it.) Also, include an indicator about how concerning the assumption is to you at this time (that is, 0 = No concern at all, just the most problematic relative to all other assumptions I am presented; 1 = Somewhat concerned with this assumption; 2 = Very concerned with this assumption; 3 = Significantly concerned and in disagreement with this assumption).
  • Identify specific parts or elements of the assumption that were most concerning to you.
  • Analyze if the assumption elements identified are based on (a) your previous experiences, (b) others’ perspectives, (c) facts, or (d) a combination of these.
  • Discuss why these elements were most concerning to you in terms of those previous experiences, perspectives, or facts. Essentially, share an example of those experiences or knowledge that resulted in your current concern.
  • Identify which future chapter in the Psychological Testing and Assessment text may be important and relevant for you, based on the assumption you identified. (Hint: Look through the Table of Contents or Index in your text for help.)

HERE IS THE EXAMPLE POST SHE GAVE US SO MAYBE THIS WILL HELP

 

SUBJECT LINE: Sample: 6 – Testing and Assessment Can Be Conducted in a Fair and Unbiased Manner

The assumption that most concerns me from the Cohen and Swerdlik (2018) text is the sixth assumption, which asserts that assessments can be conducted fairly and without bias. I rate the level of my concern as 2, or being very concerned with this assumption. As Cohen and Swerdlik (2018) noted, tests or assessments are tools wielded with a specific purpose. Even the best of tools can yield a poor result when used improperly or by the wrong person.

I believe my concerns regarding improper use of tests or assessments arise primarily from prior experience. If assessments are tools, they can be adopted by those without adequate training to use them. I recently attempted to change a light fixture in my daughter’s bedroom. While the screwdriver and circuit tester I had were of good quality, I still knocked out the electricity in half of my home and had to resort to calling a trained professional to fix the wiring that I messed up.

Of course, psychological assessments are different tools than those I used in attempting to change a light fixture. Assessments can, however, be used by people ill equipped to wield them. The potential damage of misusing psychological testing is arguably worse than the loss of electricity.

Years ago, my mother sought therapy in connection with childhood traumas. The psychologist performed some assessments, including the famed Rorschach ink blot test. He ultimately diagnosed her with multiple personalities, and she spent a small fortune on his services. It was later discovered that he had many patients with the same diagnosis, and I personally question the validity of her diagnosis and even the motivations of the therapist. While there may have been some cathartic value in discussing her trauma, she did not get the help she needed, and more harm than good was perhaps done.

There are many opportunities for psychological testing and assessments to be misused, calling into question if these tools can be used fairly and without bias. With the rise of telehealth and remote therapy, especially within the constraints of the COVID landscape, new challenges exist in ensuring fair and unbiased assessment. The element of observation is limited, for instance. To mitigate specific concerns with psychological assessment in remote settings, the American Psychological Association (APA) has issued guidance in such instances that include widening the intervals of confidence when making clinical decisions (Wright et al., 2020). While such guidance is undoubtedly useful, I wonder if it is enough.

I hope Chapter 11 will give me more knowledge about psychological assessments. Greater understanding of how these assessments are developed and used may allay some of my concerns regarding these tests being fair and unbiased. The chapter may also shed light on the selection of appropriate tests even in challenged environments.

References

Cohen, R. J., & Swerdlik, M. E. (2018). Psychological testing and assessment: An introduction to tests and measurement (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Wright, A. J., Mihura, J. L., Pade, H., & McCord, D. M. (2020, April 3). Guidance on psychological tele-assessment during the COVID-19 crisis. American Psychological Association Services. https://www.apaservices.org/practice/reimbursement/health-codes/testing/tele-assessment-covid-19

Spiritual Development In Childhood

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**THIS ASSIGNMENT MUST BE COMPLETED WITHIN 4-5 HOURS (By 11 PM EST tonight, 4/16)**

I have attached what you need to read (the textbook). The instructions are down below. Please try not to use too many complicated words: For example, instead of writing “monumental”, write “big”. Also, the assignment requires a Christian Bible verse (or Scripture) wherever you think it fits in. Thank you so much!!

Question: The textbook discusses a number of ideas that may help explain how spiritual development takes place in childhood. In your initial thread use at least 250 but no more than 400 words to describe one of these ideas and tell why you believe it is valid. Use information from our textbook, personal observation/experience, and Scripture to support your position. Be sure to identify your source(s) with at least two APA citations (one from our textbook and one from Scripture).

5.4  Spiritual Development

Moving into a study of the spiritual domain we ask, “How does the process of belief take root in a young child’s life?” From a practical standpoint, the answer is simple: they are taught to believe. However, we find that both nature and nurture are at work in the spiritual domain. There are also some who use developmental theories to explain spiritual development. Christian education provides a third component of this discussion.

Nature and Nurture

One example from the nature side of things comes from the work of Deborah Kelemen, a psychologist at Boston University. Kelemen writes that children may be “intuitive theists” (Azar, 2010; Kelemen, 2004), having a tendency to believe that things they observe have been created for a purpose. For example, a young child might say that the moon is not as bright as the sun because we need a break from the sun’s heat. They may not get the facts exactly right, but even when raised by nonreligious parents, children believe there is an intentional plan (and a planner) at work in our world.

 

Spiritual Development and Theoretical Perspectives

James Fowler’s Theory of Faith Formation

Spiritual development in childhood is often explained within the context of developmental stage theories. James Fowler’s theory of faith formation rests on the work of Piaget and Erikson. His theory consists of seven stages of faith formation that are linked to developmental stages. It is important to note that Fowler was not attempting to describe the process of growth in a particular religion or faith tradition. Instead, he attempted to define stages of belief in more general terms. While Fowler’s stages involve specific age ranges, he did not believe that these labels should be strictly applied. “Transition from one stage to another is not inevitable or assumed” (Fowler & Dell, 2004). For instance, a person could remain in the mythic-literal stage throughout his or her life, while an advanced child might reach stage 4 before adolescence.

Fowler’s stages are as follows:

(0) Primal or Undifferentiated Faith (0–2 years). This stage focuses on attachment theory and its role in faith formation. According to Fowler, when an infant learns to trust his or her caregivers, this forms a foundation for the later development of faith.

(1) Intuitive-Projective Faith (2–7 years). This stage marks a time of transition from Piaget’s sensorimotor to the preoperational stage of cognitive development. It is a time of innocence during which wonder, imagination, and intuition dominate. During this stage, children often have difficulty distinguishing truth from fantasy. Children are literal, and have difficulty understanding symbolic meaning.

(2) Mythic-Literal Faith (school-age children). In this stage individuals begin to understand cause-and-effect relationships. Thinking is literal with very little analysis of “why” we believe a certain thing. “Good” is rewarded; “bad” is punished. The transition to stage 3 begins when reality shows that good deeds sometimes go unrewarded while bad deeds are celebrated.

(3) Synthetic-Conventional Faith (early adolescence to adulthood). This is the stage of conforming to the beliefs and values of selected family members, friends, and other adults (Fowler & Dell, 2004). Individuals in this stage are able to consider truth in an abstract way. Identity exploration is evident as individuals seek to find a faith that feels right.

(4) Individuative-Reflective Faith (mid-20s to the late 30s). Entry to this stage requires two skills: the ability to think critically about the beliefs and commitments of stage 3, and establishing an identity that is uniquely one’s own (Fowler & Dell, 2004). It requires persons to closely examine their beliefs and determine that they are their own rather than simply what they have been taught by others.

(5) Conjunctive Faith (middle age). “This stage is characteristic of a truly reflective adult thinker who recognizes that truths of all kinds can be approached from multiple perspectives and that faith must balance and maintain the tensions between those multiple perspectives” (Fowler & Dell, 2004). In other words, a person in stage 5 can accept both faith and doubt. This person can entertain opposing beliefs while still holding fast to his or her own. Postformal thought allows an individual to understand and accept paradoxical truth.

(6) Universalizing Faith (usually later in life). Fowler believed this was a stage rarely reached. Here an individual expresses universal love and acceptance across political, social, ethnic, religious, and other divides. There is an appreciation for and demonstration of universal values rather than temporal pursuits. A person in this stage would appear almost saintlike.

Although Fowler’s theory is included in most developmental psychology textbooks, it is not universally accepted. A critical analysis (Parker, 2010) of this theory identified the following issues: (1) the foundational concepts upon which this theory is built are difficult to test scientifically, and (2) the tests used to validate Fowler’s theory look mainly at cognitive and rational processes (while faith also involves affect/emotion). Parker further noted that Fowler’s age-related concepts hold up through adolescence, but the later stages might better be described as “styles” of faith rather than stages, because adults seem to be less linear in their faith development. In spite of these factors, Fowler’s theory has provided a valuable resource for creating age-appropriate, faith-based educational programs.

Sociocultural Theory and Spiritual Development

Another theoretical perspective used to explain spiritual development is Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. This perspective recognizes that spiritual development typically involves mentorship (often referred to as discipleship in Evangelical churches) as well as development within a community of believers. Estep (2002) writes, “Spiritual formation is not simply an internal process, but is partially an acquisition from the community of faith in which the individual engages.” This perspective recognizes that spiritual development involves more than the acquisition of information about spiritual ideas. It involves the whole person, and there are disciplines and practices that must be learned to move a person toward spiritual maturity. For example, children learn to pray, study, meditate, and worship from others who are further along in their faith journey. Although we are focusing here on children, this is not necessarily connected to age as individuals may begin this journey at any point in life.

There is both Scripture and empirical support for the vital role parents and the greater faith community (sociocultural players) fulfill in the spiritual development of children. Long before Vygotsky called children “apprentices in thinking,” God spoke of this interaction, indicating that children (and adults) would learn best in relationship with others. One of many passages in Scripture related to this is Deuteronomy 6:7 (English Standard Version). It says, “You shall teach them diligently to your children, and shall talk of them when you sit in your house, and when you walk by the way, and when you lie down, and when you rise up.” In other words, if we want children to develop a vibrant spirituality, we must model it, teach it, and nurture it in them.

As individuals (particularly children) develop more mature thought processes and moral understanding, spiritual mentors must be prepared to take the next step in communicating truth. Mentors must answer hard questions and show children how to apply spiritual truth in real-life situations. For example, 1 Corinthians 15:58 (NIV) can help us teach children to stand strong even when standing alone.

“Therefore, my dear brothers and sisters, stand firm. Let nothing move you. Always give yourselves fully to the work of the Lord, because you know that your labor in the Lord is not in vain.”

We can teach children to overcome fear by exercising faith, such as in Hebrews 13:6 (NIV).

“So we say with confidence, “The Lord is my helper; I will not be afraid. What can mere mortals do to me?”

In terms of empirical evidence for the sociocultural perspective in explaining spiritual development, researcher George Barna found that almost half of Americans who accept Christ as their Savior (about 43%) do so before they turned 13, and half of those saved before age 13 were led to Christ either by Mom or Dad (about 21%). A very small percentage (just 7% of those who accepted Christ before age 13) did so in response to a pastor’s efforts (The Barna Group, 2004). So, as we saw in early childhood, parents are a powerful force in spiritual development.

Spiritual Development as an Educational Process

Another perspective on spiritual development emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge. Using age-appropriate methods, we communicate (through teaching) fundamental truths of our faith. Although the content and methods may vary, we see this at work in cultures throughout the world and across many faith traditions. Parents understand that information or knowledge about one’s faith must be passed down to their children. Here in the United States this process goes beyond the home environment to include church and para-church organizations. Here are some examples of settings and methods used to teach children about spiritual things.

Stories

Stories are used at home by parents and grandparents as well as in the church by teachers to communicate on an emotional level with children. Westeroff (as cited in Brisben & Klein, 2012), writes that stories go beyond the simple transmission of information. They create experiential, affiliative, searching, and owned faith. To illustrate these points made by Westeroff, we see that when we hear a story we become involved—we experience it. For example, beyond the knowledge about God’s omnipotence (all-powerful nature), we also feel the exhilaration of victory (or relief) when we “see” the Red Sea part, the walls of Jericho tumble down, the lions refrain from eating the prophet, or the boys who do not burn in the fiery furnace. In addition, to apply Westeroff’s concepts, stories give us a sense of belonging to the greater faith community (affiliation), they allow us to ask and find answers to our questions (searching), and finally we see that our story connects with the story we read or hear (owning it).

Athletics

Athletics/sports are often used as a vehicle for teaching spiritual truth to children. Sports are used here in the United States and also in cross-cultural settings to help communicate spiritual truth, encourage worship, and mentor/disciple individuals in their beliefs.

Athletics provide a rich supply of examples that can be used to communicate truth. Children learn about perseverance when a coach encourages them to keep working even when success is not easily won. Children learn to show grace and mercy when they experience athletic success or failure. Athletics can be used to teach children honesty and integrity as they are encouraged to follow the rules (even when the referee is not looking!).

Athletics can also be seen as a means of worship. We see that God has given each person certain gifts and abilities. Athletes can use these abilities to honor God. Austin (2010) reminds us of Eric Liddell’s famous quote in the movie Chariots of Fire. When this character’s commitment to running causes his sister to question his commitment to God, Liddell replied,

“You’ve got to understand. I believe that God made me for a purpose, for China. But He also made me fast. And when I run, I feel His pleasure. To give it up would be to hold Him in contempt. You were right, it’s not just fun. To win is to honor Him.”

Athletics can also be used to mentor individuals in their faith journey. Coaches exert a tremendous influence over their athletes. When coaches recognize this fact and use it as a platform for teaching and being an example, they can fulfill a key role in the spiritual formation of their athletes.

Other Settings

Other educational avenues used to help children in spiritual development include Christian camps (Yust, 2006), the church community (Morgenthaler, Keiser, & Larson, 2014), Christian schools (Sink, Cleveland, & Stern, 2007), and even social media (Postal, 2011).

Key Ideas

· While we have always understood that nurture plays a major role in the spiritual development of children, researchers also believe that spirituality may be an intrinsic part of our being, present in all—even those who are not religious.

· James Fowler’s theory of faith formation is based on the developmental stage theories proposed by Piaget and Erikson. He outlines seven stages of development that are loosely identified with age-based life stages.

· Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory provides a structure for understanding the importance of mentorship and community in the development of spirituality and/or faith.

· Educating children in a particular faith tradition can be done in a variety of settings, using a variety of methods. Some important methods include the use of stories and the mentoring process used by parents, teachers, and coaches.

 

 

Summary

While this is just a brief examination of spiritual formation, it provides a foundation for thinking about how and why children change over time in relation to spiritual things. Because we are seeing a renewed interest in the study of spirituality within human development, we are likely to see many more discoveries in our future. For now, we will say that children can and do have significant spiritual experiences. While parents are the most influential force in a child’s spiritual development, churches and members of the faith community should be aware of the important role they can play as well. The Israelite king, Solomon, recognized by many for his great wisdom wrote, “Train up a child in the way he should go: and when he is old, he will not depart from it” (Proverbs 22:6, KJV). This is advice we would all do well to remember when thinking about the spiritual development of children.*

 

What Scripture teaches about children

A. Children are a gift from God.

(Psalm 127:3–5, ESV) 3 Behold, children are a heritage from the LORD, the fruit of the womb a reward. 4 Like arrows in the hand of a warrior are the children of one’s youth. 5 Blessed is the man who fills his quiver with them! He shall not be put to shame when he speaks with his enemies in the gate.

B. Children bring happiness and fulfillment to their parents.

(Psalm 113:9, ESV) 9 He gives the barren woman a home, making her the joyous mother of children. Praise the LORD!

C. God uses children to help us understand spiritual truth.

(Matthew 18:2–6, ESV) 2 And calling to him a child, he put him in the midst of them 3 and said, “Truly, I say to you, unless you turn and become like children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven. 4 Whoever humbles himself like this child is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven. 5 “Whoever receives one such child in my name receives me.

(Mark 10:13–16, ESV) 13 And they were bringing children to him that he might touch them, and the disciples rebuked them. 14 But when Jesus saw it, he was indignant and said to them, “Let the children come to me; do not hinder them, for to such belongs the kingdom of God. 15 Truly, I say to you, whoever does not receive the kingdom of God like a child shall not enter it.” 16 And he took them in his arms and blessed them, laying his hands on them.

D. Children are capable of spiritual growth and parents have a responsibility to teach them.

(Proverbs 22:6, ESV) Train up a child in the way he should go; even when he is old he will not depart from it.

(Ephesians 6:4, ESV) Fathers, do not provoke your children to anger, but bring them up in the discipline and instruction of the Lord.

(Psalm 78:4, ESV) We will not hide them from their children, but tell to the coming generation the glorious deeds of the LORD, and his might, and the wonders that he has done

Discussion: Multiple Regression

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Please follow the attachment closely.

This Discussion assists in solidifying your understanding of statistical testing by engaging in some data analysis. This week you will work with a real, secondary dataset to construct a research question, estimate a multiple regression model, and interpret the results.

Whether in a scholarly or practitioner setting, good research and data analysis should have the benefit of peer feedback. For this Discussion, you will post your response to the hypothesis test, along with the results. Be sure and remember that the goal is to obtain constructive feedback to improve the research and its interpretation, so please view this as an opportunity to learn from one another.

To prepare for this Discussion:

  • Review this week’s Learning Resources and media program related to multiple regression.
  • Create a research question using the Afrobarometer Dataset or the HS Long Survey Dataset, that can be answered by multiple regression.

By Day 3

Use SPSS to answer the research question. Post your response to the following:

  1. If you are using the Afrobarometer Dataset, report the mean of Q1 (Age). If you are using the HS Long Survey Dataset, report the mean of X1SES.
  2. What is your research question?
  3. What is the null hypothesis for your question?
  4. What research design would align with this question?
  5. What dependent variable was used and how is it measured?
  6. What independent variables are used and how are they measured? What is the justification for including these predictor variables?
  7. If you found significance, what is the strength of the effect?
  8. Explain your results for a lay audience, explain what the answer to your research question.

Be sure to support your Main Post and Response Post with reference to the week’s Learning Resources and other scholarly evidence in APA Style.

Required Readings

 

Frankfort-Nachmias, C., Leon-Guerrero, A., & Davis, G. (2020). Social statistics for a diverse society (9th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Chapter 12, “Regression and Correlation” (pp. 401-457) (previously read in Week 8)

Wagner, III, W. E. (2020). Using IBM® SPSS® statistics for research methods and social science statistics (7th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Chapter 8, “Correlation and Regression Analysis”
Chapter 11, “Editing Output” (previously read in Week 2, 3, 4, 5. 6, 7, and 8)

https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/rsch8210

6210 Week 9 Discussion: How To Complete The Discussion Requirement

 

Review the Week 9 Course Materials

 

Use the data set dataset for this Discussion

 

Be sure to submit your SPSS Output to the Discussion Board along with your analysis.

 

Identify 2 independent variables (IV1 and IV2) and their Level of Measurement. The IV1 and IV2 can be interval, ratio, nominal, or ordinal.

 

Identify the dependent variable (DV) and its Level of Measurement. The DV must be interval or ratio.

 

Write a research question for multiple regression. Use this format:

 

What is the relationship between IV1 and IV2s (state the IVs) and the DV (state the DV)?

 

Write the null hypothesis. Use this format:

 

-There is no relationship between IV1 and IV2 and the DV.

 

State the research design.

 

Use SPSS to answer the research question. Here’s how:

 

1. Open the GSS data set, select Analyze, select Regression, Select Linear, drag IV1 and IV2 into the Independent(s) box and the DV into the Dependent box, and click OK.

 

2. Review the Sig. value in the SPSS Output under ANOVA and decide to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis.

 

3. If you reject the null and determine that the ANOVA is statistically significant, report and explain the effect size. Effect size is found under R square in the Model Summary.

 

4. If you fail to reject the null hypothesis, select new variables and repeat 1-3 steps above.

 

Write the regression equation. Here’s how:

 

Examine the Coefficients output and identify the Constant value under Unstandardized Coefficients in column B and the coefficient values for IV1 and IV2 directly below the Constant value. Write your regression equation in this format:

 

DV = Constant value + IV1(coefficient value) + IV2(coefficient value), but substitute the names of IV1, IV2 and the DV and the actual Constant value and coefficient value for IV1 and IV2. Here’s an example:

 

If Socioeconomic Status is the DV, Age is IV1 and Highest Degree is IV2, then your equation could look like this:

 

Socioeconomic status = 15 + (.114)(Age) + (11.3)(Highest Degree)

 

Do not use these numbers. Do your own calculations.

HGD Reflection Paper Chapter 5

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 In this chapter, you learned about Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences. You also learned about Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. Please review these theories in your text and lecture notes and if you have not already done so watch the associated videos.  Now, in 1-2 paragraphs discuss which theory you think best explains intelligence and why.  No Plagiarism