The Physical Development of the Young Child

/in /by

lives?

2- Next, classify those things from question one into operant or classical conditioning, habituation and recovery, or

imitation. Then describe how those activities support the child’s development?

READING

 

The Physical Development of the Young Child

Take a moment and think about a newborn infant–at birth, human infants are, essentially, completely vulnerable and helpless. Unlike many animals, they cannot walk, consume solid food, or manage even the most basic tasks for their own survival. This is the price we pay for our brains–we are born far less developed than many creatures. Over the course of a very short time, around two years, that helpless newborn learns to walk and talk, to manipulate objects, to engage and participate in the world around her.

This transition from a helpless newborn to a toddler or preschooler requires massive amounts of learning, fueled by rapid brain growth, sensorimotor development, and physical growth. The infant, from birth, uses his ability to perceive to learn and develop an understanding of the world around him.

TOPICS COVERED WILL INCLUDE:

  • Brain development during infancy and toddlerhood at the larger level of the cerebral cortex.
  • Learning through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, habituation and recovery, and imitation.
  • Dynamic Systems theory of motor development, highlighting cultural variations in motor development.
  • Gibsons’ Differentiation Theory of perceptual development.

The Development of the Brain

Brain development in the first two years of life is fascinating and awe-inspiring. Most of the physical growth of the brain occurs during the first two years of life. Neuroscience has shed light on the development of neurons and the cerebral cortex in particular. At birth, infants have approximately one hundred billion neurons. Relatively few neurons will be produced after birth. The newborn’s neurons are connected only tentatively. In the first years, essential connections between neurons form. Combined with understanding sensitive periods and the role of the environment, we have a much clearer picture of what is happening in the infant and toddler brain today than ever before.

Development of Neurons

Neurons are nerve cells in the brain that store and transmit information. In total, the human brain has between 100 to 200 billion of these neurons.

‹1/4›

  • Neurons send messages from one to another through tiny gaps, called synapses. These messages travel on chemicals called neurotransmitters.A synapse

Development of the Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex is the portion of the brain we think of when we hear the word brain. The other parts of the brain are the cerebellum and the brain stem. These parts of the brain are responsible for a number of physical functions, but not for thought, learning and memory. It accounts for approximately 85 percent of the total weight of the brain. In appearance, it looks like a wrinkled half walnut. The cerebral cortex is the last part of the brain to stop growing and it is significantly more sensitive to environmental conditions than other parts of the brain.

The cerebral cortex is divided into four parts, called lobes. Each of the brain’s lobes is associated with particular functions.

The cerebral cortex

  • Frontal lobe
  • Parietal lobe
  • Temporal lobe
  • Occipital lobe

LATERALIZATION

RIGHT VERSUS LEFT BRAIN

TWO HEMISPHERES

Sensitive Periods in Brain Development

A crying baby

Brain development in children is often quite sensitive to a variety of factors. In some cases, trauma, lack of care or the absence of appropriate support may limit the child’s abilities to grow and develop properly. While scientific studies on children pose a number of ethical questions, animal studies and observation of children have confirmed the existence of periods of increased sensitivity for proper brain development. During these periods, the physical, cognitive and social or emotional development of children can be slowed or damaged.

‹1/6›

  • A lack of adequate environmental stimulation is the most likely cause of damage in these situations. Inadequate environmental stimulation stalls the proper development of the prefrontal cortex. This will reduce the child’s impulse control, cognition and emotional control, both positive and negative. In today’s world, these situations are often associated with abusive or neglectful parenting, or, in some cases, with orphanage care.A crying baby

Physical Aspects of Brain Development

  • PHYSICAL ASPECTS
  • SLEEP-WAKE CYCLE
  • NUTRITION

Brain development is not just a social and cognitive process, but also a physical one. This is evidenced in a number of ways, including the changing states of arousal, or sleep-wake cycle, associated with infancy and toddlerhood.

A sleeping baby

Infant Learning

Evidence of learning is present from the moment of birth. The built-in capacities of learning through conditioning, interest in that which is novel and unusual, and imitation are particularly powerful. Our increasing understanding of mirror neurons is particularly exciting for better understanding learning in infancy.

Learning is a word you’re already familiar with–can you define it? Infant learning is defined as changes in behavior as a result of experience. Babies are born with the ability to learn, as well as with some innate reflexes.

Reflexes

REFLEXES

  • Rooting reflex
  • Sucking reflex
  • Moro (Startle) reflex
  • Tonic neck reflex
  • Grasping reflex
  • Babinski reflex
  • Step reflex

Classical conditioning builds upon the infant’s innate reflex, or spontaneous and inborn behavioral patterns. Human infants are born with seven different reflexes. At birth, these are the primary driving forces for the infant’s behavior and movement. Conscious control of the body is not present at birth.

For instance, if you put a nipple or finger in a newborn’s mouth, the baby will suckle; however, over the first few weeks, the baby will improve his ability to suckle, feeding more effectively. This is one of the earliest examples of learning.

Classical Conditioning

An infant

Infants learn, in the earliest stages of their development, through classical conditioning. Classical conditioning suggests that when you pair a stimulus and the reflex or natural, unconscious response it induces with a neutral stimulus, eventually, the neutral stimulus will be associated with the response. This is process of neural development.

INFANT CONNECTS TWO STIMULI

APPLICATION TO BEDTIME ROUTINES

ENHANCED BY REGULAR AND RELATED TO SURVIVAL

Operant Conditioning

Infants also learn through operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning. Operant conditioning links behavior to reward or punishment. Operant conditioning is linked to the work of B.F. Skinner and is a form of behaviorism. Positive reinforcement is the introduction of a positive consequence to behavior. Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unwanted consequence. Punishment can also be positive or negative. A positive punishment introduces an unwelcome or unpleasant consequence. A negative punishment removes a positive consequence.

A mother holding a baby while she presses a piano key‹1/3›

  • Take a moment to think about toys for infants. Many of them have lights, sounds or other interactive features. When the baby hits or grabs the toy, the sound plays or the toy lights up. This acts as positive reinforcement for the baby’s actions, so he repeats the action to hear the sound again. This is an example of operant conditioning.Parents playing with a baby

Habituation

  • HABITUATION
  • RECOVERY
  • HABITUATION BEHAVIORS

The human brain is naturally programmed to prefer novel or new experiences. New sights and sounds often entertain and engage infants. Over time, habituation occurs. Habituation is gradual decline in strength of response with repeated stimulation denoting loss of interest in the stimulus over time. Habituation is measured by a decrease in time spent looking or interacting, as well as reduced heart beat and respiration.

A baby playing

Imitation

One baby watching another infant play

Infants are born with a primitive ability to mimic or imitate the actions of those around them, including head and hand motions. Some of these motions, or gesture, appear in many different cultures around the world.

IMITATION

MIRROR NEURONS

ABILITY TO IMITATE INCREASES OVER TIME

The Dynamic Systems Theory of Motor Development

The development of motor skills is a remarkable undertaking which child developmentalists now know is interrelated and dynamic. Rather than singular and isolated, motor skills develop within a system which is highly influenced by the environment and by the child’s culture.

‹1/7›

  • Dynamic Systems Theory of Motor Development is a theory that attempts to explain motor development in infants and children, developed in the 20th century by Esther Thelen. The Dynamic Systems theory is the broadest and most all-encompassing of all developmental theories. The most significant impact of Dynamic Systems theory has been in our understanding of early sensorimotor development, including both gross motor and fine motor skills.Systems Theory

Motor Skills

Motor skills are the product of four factors. These four factors develop with age.

  • Central nervous system development
  • Body’s movement capacities
  • Goals of child
  • Environmental support

DEVELOPING A SKILL

GROWING PROFICIENCY

INFLUENCE OF CULTURE

WHEN CULTURE VALUES SAFETY

WHEN CULTURE VALUES STRENGTH

Perceptual Development

  • SENSORY INPUT
  • PERCEPTION
  • HEARING
  • HEARING AND SPEECH

Perceptual development is an essential aspect of the child’s ability to interpret, understand, and apply sensory input. There are several major areas of perceptual development and the young child has an extraordinary ability to bring all this together through intermodal perception and differentiation to promote learning and relationships with others.

A baby

Vision

Eye

Vision is not well-developed at birth; however, it rapidly develops over the first few months of life. In the earliest weeks, the infant can only see detail that is very near and shows a preference for human faces.

‹1/4›

  • Diagram of the eyeThe development of vision is supported by changes in the eye, as well as the cerebral cortex. As vision develops, the baby uses visual scanning to enhance perception and their interest in perception enhances scanning. As vision develops, so does depth perception. The ability to judge depth or distance is necessary for motor activity. The infant’s ability to perceive depth was confirmed by the visual cliff study designed by Eleanor Gibson. When infants were placed on a plexiglass surface, they crawled when it was over a shallow depth, but stopped moving when the depth was greater.

Gibson’s Differentiation Theory

Eleanor and James Gibson were psychologists who specialized in the study of infant perception; however, Eleanor Gibson’s work on infant perception was more in-depth and thorough than her husband’s. Eleanor Gibson was the first to recognize that infants were born fully capable of perception, and that perception drove the process of learning. There was no need for the infant to learn to perceive; at birth, she could see and hear, touch and feel, and discern many things about her environment. Gibson sought, in her work, to answer two basic questions: “What is learned and what is the function? What instigates learning and what terminates the process?” Gibson relied on a comparative systems approach. She looked at the individual, whether an animal or human child, in its entire environment, or system. She compared this individual to others to assess the process of perception and learning.

INVARIANT FEATURES

DIFFERENTIATION

ACTION POSSIBILITIES

TODDLER EXAMPLE

Exploration Drives Learning

  • EXPLORATION
  • AGENCY
  • FLEXIBILITY

Exploration drives learning. Even before babies are capable of crawling or walking, they can see things in their environment and wish to explore those things. Once they can move to the things they see, they want to look, touch, and taste what they see–to perceive and learn all they can about the things. Multimodal exploration is the norm for infants and young children.These exploratory activities have three distinct parts: a perceptual aspect, a motor aspect, and a knowledge-gathering aspect. The child perceives a thing, locomotes to explore the thing, and uses his senses to perceive information and gain knowledge about the thing.

A baby eating with food spread on her head and all over the tray

Knowledge Check

1

Question 1

Which of the following may support mother-infant bonding?Differentiation theory of perceptionThe Moro reflexPattern recognitionDynamic Systems theoryI don’t knowOne attemptSubmit answerYou answered 0 out of 0 correctly. Asking up to 2.

Lesson Overview

The first two to three years of life are a time of rapid growth and development for human children. These years provide the basis for future learning, and physical or emotional harm during this time can cause lifelong issues with cognition, emotional control, impulse control, and even motor skills. The development of the cerebral cortex occurs during the first two to three years of life and is dependent upon both genetics and environmental factors.

Children make leaps in physical, emotional and cognitive development in these years. Behaviorism, including classical and operant conditioning explains some amount of infant learning. In addition, the human interest in novelty supports learning through the process of habituation and recovery. Children also learn through the process of imitation of adults and others in their environment.

A number of theories attempt to explain how children develop new skills as infants and toddlers.The Dynamic Systems theory of motor development suggests that the development of motor skills is highly individual and related to cultural values about child development. Children may develop skills in a different order, and may develop different skills depending upon their culture and parenting styles. Finally, Gibson’s Differentiation Theory of perception attempts to explain how children perceive the world and convert these perceptions into knowledge about the world.

Collage of images from the lesson

Key Terms

CEREBRAL CORTEX

DIFFERENTIATION THEORY OF PERCEPTION

DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT BRAIN GROWTH

EXPERIENCE-EXPECTANT BRAIN GROWTH

HABITUATION

IMITATION

INTERMODAL PERCEPTION

INVARIANT FEATURES

LATERALIZATION

LEARNING

LOBES

MIRROR NEURONS

MYELINATION

NEURONS

PERCEPTION

PRUNING

RECOVERY

REFLEXES

SYNAPSES

Sources

  • Adolph, Karen E. & Kretch, Kari S. (n.d.). Gibson’s Theory of Perceptual Learning. Retrieved from http://www.psych.nyu.edu/adolph/publications/AdolphKretch-inpress-GibsonTheory.pdf.
  • Fine by Nine. (n.d.). Learning Begins at Birth. Retrieved from http://www.finebynine.org/uploaded/file/Briefing%20Paper%201.pdf.
  • Gerhardstein, Peter et. al. (2006) Using Operant Techniques with Human Infants. Retrieved from https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-170113005/using-operant-techniques-w ith-humans-infants.
  • Kinser, Patricia Ann. (2000) Brain Structures and their Functions. Retrieved from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/Structure1.html.
  • Learning Theories. (n.d.). Classical and Operant Conditioning. Retrieved from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/Structure1.html.
  • Psysc613. (n.d.). Dynamic Systems Theory. Retrieved from https://psysc613.wikispaces.com/Dynamic+Systems+Theoryrant-conditioning.
  • Zero to Three. (n.d.). Brain Development. Retrieved from https://www.zerotothree.org/resources/series/frequently-asked-questions-about-bra1- What do you see as the most important things that parents can do to help their children at this point in their lives?

    2- Next, classify those things from question one into operant or classical conditioning, habituation and recovery, or

        imitation. Then describe how those activities support the child’s development?

     

     

     

     

    READING

     

    The Physical Development of the Young Child

    Take a moment and think about a newborn infant–at birth, human infants are, essentially, completely vulnerable and helpless. Unlike many animals, they cannot walk, consume solid food, or manage even the most basic tasks for their own survival. This is the price we pay for our brains–we are born far less developed than many creatures. Over the course of a very short time, around two years, that helpless newborn learns to walk and talk, to manipulate objects, to engage and participate in the world around her.

    This transition from a helpless newborn to a toddler or preschooler requires massive amounts of  learning , fueled by rapid brain growth, sensorimotor development, and physical growth. The infant, from birth, uses his ability to perceive to learn and develop an understanding of the world around him.

    TOPICS COVERED WILL INCLUDE:

    · Brain development during infancy and toddlerhood at the larger level of the cerebral cortex.

    · Learning through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, habituation and recovery, and imitation.

    · Dynamic Systems theory of motor development, highlighting cultural variations in motor development.

    · Gibsons’ Differentiation Theory of perceptual development.

    The Development of the Brain

    Brain development in the first two years of life is fascinating and awe-inspiring. Most of the physical growth of the brain occurs during the first two years of life. Neuroscience has shed light on the development of  neurons  and the  cerebral cortex  in particular. At birth, infants have approximately one hundred billion neurons. Relatively few neurons will be produced after birth. The newborn’s neurons are connected only tentatively. In the first years, essential connections between neurons form. Combined with understanding sensitive periods and the role of the environment, we have a much clearer picture of what is happening in the infant and toddler brain today than ever before.

    Note the lobes of the brain

    Development of Neurons

    Neurons firing in the brain

    Neurons are nerve cells in the brain that store and transmit information. In total, the human brain has between 100 to 200 billion of these neurons.

    ‹1/4›

    · Neurons send messages from one to another through tiny gaps, called  synapses . These messages travel on chemicals called neurotransmitters.

     

    Development of the Cerebral Cortex

    The cerebral cortex is the portion of the brain we think of when we hear the word brain. The other parts of the brain are the cerebellum and the brain stem. These parts of the brain are responsible for a number of physical functions, but not for thought, learning and memory. It accounts for approximately 85 percent of the total weight of the brain. In appearance, it looks like a wrinkled half walnut. The cerebral cortex is the last part of the brain to stop growing and it is significantly more sensitive to environmental conditions than other parts of the brain.

    The cerebral cortex is divided into four parts, called  lobes . Each of the brain’s lobes is associated with particular functions.

     

    · Frontal lobe

    · Parietal lobe

    · Temporal lobe

    · Occipital lobe

    LATERALIZATION

    RIGHT VERSUS LEFT BRAIN

    TWO HEMISPHERES

    Sensitive Periods in Brain Development

     

    Brain development in children is often quite sensitive to a variety of factors. In some cases, trauma, lack of care or the absence of appropriate support may limit the child’s abilities to grow and develop properly. While scientific studies on children pose a number of ethical questions, animal studies and observation of children have confirmed the existence of periods of increased sensitivity for proper brain development. During these periods, the physical, cognitive and social or emotional development of children can be slowed or damaged.

    ‹1/6›

    · A lack of adequate environmental stimulation is the most likely cause of damage in these situations. Inadequate environmental stimulation stalls the proper development of the prefrontal cortex. This will reduce the child’s impulse control, cognition and emotional control, both positive and negative. In today’s world, these situations are often associated with abusive or neglectful parenting, or, in some cases, with orphanage care.

     

    Physical Aspects of Brain Development

    · PHYSICAL ASPECTS

    · SLEEP-WAKE CYCLE

    · NUTRITION

     

    Brain development is not just a social and cognitive process, but also a physical one. This is evidenced in a number of ways, including the changing states of arousal, or sleep-wake cycle, associated with infancy and toddlerhood.

     

    Infant Learning

    Evidence of learning is present from the moment of birth. The built-in capacities of learning through conditioning, interest in that which is novel and unusual, and  imitation  are particularly powerful. Our increasing understanding of  mirror neurons  is particularly exciting for better understanding learning in infancy.

    Learning is a word you’re already familiar with–can you define it? Infant learning is defined as changes in behavior as a result of experience. Babies are born with the ability to learn, as well as with some innate  reflexes .

    Infants take an interest in the world in many different ways

     

    Reflexes

    REFLEXES

    · Rooting reflex

    · Sucking reflex

    · Moro (Startle) reflex

    · Tonic neck reflex

    · Grasping reflex

    · Babinski reflex

    · Step reflex

    Classical conditioning builds upon the infant’s innate reflex, or spontaneous and inborn behavioral patterns. Human infants are born with seven different reflexes. At birth, these are the primary driving forces for the infant’s behavior and movement. Conscious control of the body is not present at birth.

    For instance, if you put a nipple or finger in a newborn’s mouth, the baby will suckle; however, over the first few weeks, the baby will improve his ability to suckle, feeding more effectively. This is one of the earliest examples of learning.

     

    Classical Conditioning

     

    Infants learn, in the earliest stages of their development, through classical conditioning. Classical conditioning suggests that when you pair a stimulus and the reflex or natural, unconscious response it induces with a neutral stimulus, eventually, the neutral stimulus will be associated with the response. This is process of neural development.

    INFANT CONNECTS TWO STIMULI

    APPLICATION TO BEDTIME ROUTINES

    ENHANCED BY REGULAR AND RELATED TO SURVIVAL

    Operant Conditioning

    Infants also learn through operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning. Operant conditioning links behavior to reward or punishment. Operant conditioning is linked to the work of B.F. Skinner and is a form of behaviorism. Positive reinforcement is the introduction of a positive consequence to behavior. Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unwanted consequence. Punishment can also be positive or negative. A positive punishment introduces an unwelcome or unpleasant consequence. A negative punishment removes a positive consequence.

     

    ‹1/3›

    · Take a moment to think about toys for infants. Many of them have lights, sounds or other interactive features. When the baby hits or grabs the toy, the sound plays or the toy lights up. This acts as positive reinforcement for the baby’s actions, so he repeats the action to hear the sound again. This is an example of operant conditioning.

     

    Habituation

    · HABITUATION

    · RECOVERY

    · HABITUATION BEHAVIORS

     

    The human brain is naturally programmed to prefer novel or new experiences. New sights and sounds often entertain and engage infants. Over time,  habituation  occurs. Habituation is gradual decline in strength of response with repeated stimulation denoting loss of interest in the stimulus over time. Habituation is measured by a decrease in time spent looking or interacting, as well as reduced heart beat and respiration.

     

    Imitation

     

    Infants are born with a primitive ability to mimic or imitate the actions of those around them, including head and hand motions. Some of these motions, or gesture, appear in many different cultures around the world.

    IMITATION

    MIRROR NEURONS

    ABILITY TO IMITATE INCREASES OVER TIME

    The Dynamic Systems Theory of Motor Development

    The development of motor skills is a remarkable undertaking which child developmentalists now know is interrelated and dynamic. Rather than singular and isolated, motor skills develop within a system which is highly influenced by the environment and by the child’s culture.

    Infants gain motor skills at remarkably different rates

    ‹1/7›

    · Dynamic Systems Theory of Motor Development  is a theory that attempts to explain motor development in infants and children, developed in the 20th century by Esther Thelen. The Dynamic Systems theory is the broadest and most all-encompassing of all developmental theories. The most significant impact of Dynamic Systems theory has been in our understanding of early sensorimotor development, including both gross motor and fine motor skills.

    Systems Theory

    Motor Skills

    Motor skills are the product of four factors. These four factors develop with age.

    · Central nervous system development

    · Body’s movement capacities

    · Goals of child

    · Environmental support

    DEVELOPING A SKILL

    GROWING PROFICIENCY

    INFLUENCE OF CULTURE

    WHEN CULTURE VALUES SAFETY

    WHEN CULTURE VALUES STRENGTH

    Perceptual Development

    · SENSORY INPUT

    · PERCEPTION

    · HEARING

    · HEARING AND SPEECH

     

    Perceptual development is an essential aspect of the child’s ability to interpret, understand, and apply sensory input. There are several major areas of perceptual development and the young child has an extraordinary ability to bring all this together through  intermodal perception  and differentiation to promote learning and relationships with others.

     

    Vision

     

    Vision is not well-developed at birth; however, it rapidly develops over the first few months of life. In the earliest weeks, the infant can only see detail that is very near and shows a preference for human faces.

    ‹1/4›

    ·

    The development of vision is supported by changes in the eye, as well as the cerebral cortex. As vision develops, the baby uses visual scanning to enhance perception and their interest in perception enhances scanning. As vision develops, so does depth perception. The ability to judge depth or distance is necessary for motor activity. The infant’s ability to perceive depth was confirmed by the visual cliff study designed by Eleanor Gibson. When infants were placed on a plexiglass surface, they crawled when it was over a shallow depth, but stopped moving when the depth was greater.

    Gibson’s Differentiation Theory

    Eleanor and James Gibson were psychologists who specialized in the study of infant perception; however, Eleanor Gibson’s work on infant perception was more in-depth and thorough than her husband’s. Eleanor Gibson was the first to recognize that infants were born fully capable of perception, and that perception drove the process of learning. There was no need for the infant to learn to perceive; at birth, she could see and hear, touch and feel, and discern many things about her environment. Gibson sought, in her work, to answer two basic questions: “What is learned and what is the function? What instigates learning and what terminates the process?” Gibson relied on a comparative systems approach. She looked at the individual, whether an animal or human child, in its entire environment, or system. She compared this individual to others to assess the process of perception and learning.

    Eleanor Gibson giving the keynote address at the 1993 Association for Psychological Science Convention

    INVARIANT FEATURES

    DIFFERENTIATION

    ACTION POSSIBILITIES

    TODDLER EXAMPLE

    Exploration Drives Learning

    · EXPLORATION

    · AGENCY

    · FLEXIBILITY

     

    Exploration drives learning. Even before babies are capable of crawling or walking, they can see things in their environment and wish to explore those things. Once they can move to the things they see, they want to look, touch, and taste what they see–to perceive and learn all they can about the things. Multimodal exploration is the norm for infants and young children.These exploratory activities have three distinct parts: a perceptual aspect, a motor aspect, and a knowledge-gathering aspect. The child perceives a thing, locomotes to explore the thing, and uses his senses to perceive information and gain knowledge about the thing.

     

    Knowledge Check

     

    1

    Question 1

    Which of the following may support mother-infant bonding?

    Differentiation theory of perception
    The Moro reflex
    Pattern recognition
    Dynamic Systems theory

    I don’t know

    One attempt

    Submit answer

    You answered 0 out of 0 correctly. Asking up to 2.

    Lesson Overview

    The first two to three years of life are a time of rapid growth and development for human children. These years provide the basis for future learning, and physical or emotional harm during this time can cause lifelong issues with cognition, emotional control, impulse control, and even motor skills. The development of the cerebral cortex occurs during the first two to three years of life and is dependent upon both genetics and environmental factors.

    Children make leaps in physical, emotional and cognitive development in these years. Behaviorism, including classical and operant conditioning explains some amount of infant learning. In addition, the human interest in novelty supports learning through the process of habituation and recovery. Children also learn through the process of imitation of adults and others in their environment.

    A number of theories attempt to explain how children develop new skills as infants and toddlers.The Dynamic Systems theory of motor development suggests that the development of motor skills is highly individual and related to cultural values about child development. Children may develop skills in a different order, and may develop different skills depending upon their culture and parenting styles. Finally, Gibson’s Differentiation Theory of perception attempts to explain how children perceive the world and convert these perceptions into knowledge about the world.

     

    Key Terms

    CEREBRAL CORTEX

    DIFFERENTIATION THEORY OF PERCEPTION

    DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

    EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT BRAIN GROWTH

    EXPERIENCE-EXPECTANT BRAIN GROWTH

    HABITUATION

    IMITATION

    INTERMODAL PERCEPTION

    INVARIANT FEATURES

    LATERALIZATION

    LEARNING

    LOBES

    MIRROR NEURONS

    MYELINATION

    NEURONS

    PERCEPTION

    PRUNING

    RECOVERY

    REFLEXES

    SYNAPSES

    Sources

    · Adolph, Karen E. & Kretch, Kari S. (n.d.). Gibson’s Theory of Perceptual Learning. Retrieved from http://www.psych.nyu.edu/adolph/publications/AdolphKretch-inpress-GibsonTheory.pdf.

    · Fine by Nine. (n.d.). Learning Begins at Birth. Retrieved from http://www.finebynine.org/uploaded/file/Briefing%20Paper%201.pdf.

    · Gerhardstein, Peter et. al. (2006) Using Operant Techniques with Human Infants. Retrieved from https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-170113005/using-operant-techniques-w ith-humans-infants.

    · Kinser, Patricia Ann. (2000) Brain Structures and their Functions. Retrieved from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/Structure1.html.

    · Learning Theories. (n.d.). Classical and Operant Conditioning. Retrieved from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/Structure1.html.

    · Psysc613. (n.d.). Dynamic Systems Theory. Retrieved from https://psysc613.wikispaces.com/Dynamic+Systems+Theoryrant-conditioning.

    · Zero to Three. (n.d.). Brain Development. Retrieved from https://www.zerotothree.org/resources/series/frequently-asked-questions-about-bra

    1

    –

     

    What do you see as the most important things that parents can do to help

    their children at this point in their lives

    ?

     

    2

    –

     

    Next, classify those things from question one into operant or classical

    conditioning, habituation and recovery, o

    r

     

     

    imitation.

     

    Then describe how those activities support the child’s

    development

    ?

     

     

     

     

     

     

    READING

     

     

    The Physical

    Development of the

    Young Child

     

    Take a moment and think about a newborn infant

    —

    at birth, human infants are, essentially,

    completely vulnerable and helpless. Un

    like many animals, they cannot walk, consume solid

    food, or manage even the most basic tasks for their own survival. This is the price we pay for our

    brains

    —

    we are born far less developed than many creatures. Over the course of a very short time,

    around t

    wo years, that helpless newborn learns to walk and talk, to manipulate objects, to engage

    and participate in the world around her.

     

    This transition from a helpless newborn to a toddler or preschooler requires massive amounts

    of

     

    learning

    , fueled by rapid brain growth, sensorimotor development, and physical growth. The

    1- What do you see as the most important things that parents can do to help

    their children at this point in their lives?

    2- Next, classify those things from question one into operant or classical

    conditioning, habituation and recovery, or

    imitation. Then describe how those activities support the child’s

    development?

     

     

     

     

    READING

     

    The Physical

    Development of the

    Young Child

    Take a moment and think about a newborn infant–at birth, human infants are, essentially,

    completely vulnerable and helpless. Unlike many animals, they cannot walk, consume solid

    food, or manage even the most basic tasks for their own survival. This is the price we pay for our

    brains–we are born far less developed than many creatures. Over the course of a very short time,

    around two years, that helpless newborn learns to walk and talk, to manipulate objects, to engage

    and participate in the world around her.

    This transition from a helpless newborn to a toddler or preschooler requires massive amounts

    of learning, fueled by rapid brain growth, sensorimotor development, and physical growth. The

    1- What do you see as the most important things that parents can do to help their children at this point in their lives?

    2- Next, classify those things from question one into operant or classical conditioning, habituation and recovery, or

        imitation. Then describe how those activities support the child’s development?

     

     

     

     

    READING

     

    The Physical Development of the Young Child

    Take a moment and think about a newborn infant–at birth, human infants are, essentially, completely vulnerable and helpless. Unlike many animals, they cannot walk, consume solid food, or manage even the most basic tasks for their own survival. This is the price we pay for our brains–we are born far less developed than many creatures. Over the course of a very short time, around two years, that helpless newborn learns to walk and talk, to manipulate objects, to engage and participate in the world around her.

    This transition from a helpless newborn to a toddler or preschooler requires massive amounts of  learning , fueled by rapid brain growth, sensorimotor development, and physical growth. The infant, from birth, uses his ability to perceive to learn and develop an understanding of the world around him.

    TOPICS COVERED WILL INCLUDE:

    · Brain development during infancy and toddlerhood at the larger level of the cerebral cortex.

    · Learning through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, habituation and recovery, and imitation.

    · Dynamic Systems theory of motor development, highlighting cultural variations in motor development.

    · Gibsons’ Differentiation Theory of perceptual development.

    The Development of the Brain

    Brain development in the first two years of life is fascinating and awe-inspiring. Most of the physical growth of the brain occurs during the first two years of life. Neuroscience has shed light on the development of  neurons  and the  cerebral cortex  in particular. At birth, infants have approximately one hundred billion neurons. Relatively few neurons will be produced after birth. The newborn’s neurons are connected only tentatively. In the first years, essential connections between neurons form. Combined with understanding sensitive periods and the role of the environment, we have a much clearer picture of what is happening in the infant and toddler brain today than ever before.

    Note the lobes of the brain

    Development of Neurons

    Neurons firing in the brain

    Neurons are nerve cells in the brain that store and transmit information. In total, the human brain has between 100 to 200 billion of these neurons.

    ‹1/4›

    · Neurons send messages from one to another through tiny gaps, called  synapses . These messages travel on chemicals called neurotransmitters.

     

    Development of the Cerebral Cortex

    The cerebral cortex is the portion of the brain we think of when we hear the word brain. The other parts of the brain are the cerebellum and the brain stem. These parts of the brain are responsible for a number of physical functions, but not for thought, learning and memory. It accounts for approximately 85 percent of the total weight of the brain. In appearance, it looks like a wrinkled half walnut. The cerebral cortex is the last part of the brain to stop growing and it is significantly more sensitive to environmental conditions than other parts of the brain.

    The cerebral cortex is divided into four parts, called  lobes . Each of the brain’s lobes is associated with particular functions.

     

    · Frontal lobe

    · Parietal lobe

    · Temporal lobe

    · Occipital lobe

    LATERALIZATION

    RIGHT VERSUS LEFT BRAIN

    TWO HEMISPHERES

    Sensitive Periods in Brain Development

     

    Brain development in children is often quite sensitive to a variety of factors. In some cases, trauma, lack of care or the absence of appropriate support may limit the child’s abilities to grow and develop properly. While scientific studies on children pose a number of ethical questions, animal studies and observation of children have confirmed the existence of periods of increased sensitivity for proper brain development. During these periods, the physical, cognitive and social or emotional development of children can be slowed or damaged.

    ‹1/6›

    · A lack of adequate environmental stimulation is the most likely cause of damage in these situations. Inadequate environmental stimulation stalls the proper development of the prefrontal cortex. This will reduce the child’s impulse control, cognition and emotional control, both positive and negative. In today’s world, these situations are often associated with abusive or neglectful parenting, or, in some cases, with orphanage care.

     

    Physical Aspects of Brain Development

    · PHYSICAL ASPECTS

    · SLEEP-WAKE CYCLE

    · NUTRITION

     

    Brain development is not just a social and cognitive process, but also a physical one. This is evidenced in a number of ways, including the changing states of arousal, or sleep-wake cycle, associated with infancy and toddlerhood.

     

    Infant Learning

    Evidence of learning is present from the moment of birth. The built-in capacities of learning through conditioning, interest in that which is novel and unusual, and  imitation  are particularly powerful. Our increasing understanding of  mirror neurons  is particularly exciting for better understanding learning in infancy.

    Learning is a word you’re already familiar with–can you define it? Infant learning is defined as changes in behavior as a result of experience. Babies are born with the ability to learn, as well as with some innate  reflexes .

    Infants take an interest in the world in many different ways

     

    Reflexes

    REFLEXES

    · Rooting reflex

    · Sucking reflex

    · Moro (Startle) reflex

    · Tonic neck reflex

    · Grasping reflex

    · Babinski reflex

    · Step reflex

    Classical conditioning builds upon the infant’s innate reflex, or spontaneous and inborn behavioral patterns. Human infants are born with seven different reflexes. At birth, these are the primary driving forces for the infant’s behavior and movement. Conscious control of the body is not present at birth.

    For instance, if you put a nipple or finger in a newborn’s mouth, the baby will suckle; however, over the first few weeks, the baby will improve his ability to suckle, feeding more effectively. This is one of the earliest examples of learning.

     

    Classical Conditioning

     

    Infants learn, in the earliest stages of their development, through classical conditioning. Classical conditioning suggests that when you pair a stimulus and the reflex or natural, unconscious response it induces with a neutral stimulus, eventually, the neutral stimulus will be associated with the response. This is process of neural development.

    INFANT CONNECTS TWO STIMULI

    APPLICATION TO BEDTIME ROUTINES

    ENHANCED BY REGULAR AND RELATED TO SURVIVAL

    Operant Conditioning

    Infants also learn through operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning. Operant conditioning links behavior to reward or punishment. Operant conditioning is linked to the work of B.F. Skinner and is a form of behaviorism. Positive reinforcement is the introduction of a positive consequence to behavior. Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unwanted consequence. Punishment can also be positive or negative. A positive punishment introduces an unwelcome or unpleasant consequence. A negative punishment removes a positive consequence.

     

    ‹1/3›

    · Take a moment to think about toys for infants. Many of them have lights, sounds or other interactive features. When the baby hits or grabs the toy, the sound plays or the toy lights up. This acts as positive reinforcement for the baby’s actions, so he repeats the action to hear the sound again. This is an example of operant conditioning.

     

    Habituation

    · HABITUATION

    · RECOVERY

    · HABITUATION BEHAVIORS

     

    The human brain is naturally programmed to prefer novel or new experiences. New sights and sounds often entertain and engage infants. Over time,  habituation  occurs. Habituation is gradual decline in strength of response with repeated stimulation denoting loss of interest in the stimulus over time. Habituation is measured by a decrease in time spent looking or interacting, as well as reduced heart beat and respiration.

     

    Imitation

     

    Infants are born with a primitive ability to mimic or imitate the actions of those around them, including head and hand motions. Some of these motions, or gesture, appear in many different cultures around the world.

    IMITATION

    MIRROR NEURONS

    ABILITY TO IMITATE INCREASES OVER TIME

    The Dynamic Systems Theory of Motor Development

    The development of motor skills is a remarkable undertaking which child developmentalists now know is interrelated and dynamic. Rather than singular and isolated, motor skills develop within a system which is highly influenced by the environment and by the child’s culture.

    Infants gain motor skills at remarkably different rates

    ‹1/7›

    · Dynamic Systems Theory of Motor Development  is a theory that attempts to explain motor development in infants and children, developed in the 20th century by Esther Thelen. The Dynamic Systems theory is the broadest and most all-encompassing of all developmental theories. The most significant impact of Dynamic Systems theory has been in our understanding of early sensorimotor development, including both gross motor and fine motor skills.

    Systems Theory

    Motor Skills

    Motor skills are the product of four factors. These four factors develop with age.

    · Central nervous system development

    · Body’s movement capacities

    · Goals of child

    · Environmental support

    DEVELOPING A SKILL

    GROWING PROFICIENCY

    INFLUENCE OF CULTURE

    WHEN CULTURE VALUES SAFETY

    WHEN CULTURE VALUES STRENGTH

    Perceptual Development

    · SENSORY INPUT

    · PERCEPTION

    · HEARING

    · HEARING AND SPEECH

     

    Perceptual development is an essential aspect of the child’s ability to interpret, understand, and apply sensory input. There are several major areas of perceptual development and the young child has an extraordinary ability to bring all this together through  intermodal perception  and differentiation to promote learning and relationships with others.

     

    Vision

     

    Vision is not well-developed at birth; however, it rapidly develops over the first few months of life. In the earliest weeks, the infant can only see detail that is very near and shows a preference for human faces.

    ‹1/4›

    ·

    The development of vision is supported by changes in the eye, as well as the cerebral cortex. As vision develops, the baby uses visual scanning to enhance perception and their interest in perception enhances scanning. As vision develops, so does depth perception. The ability to judge depth or distance is necessary for motor activity. The infant’s ability to perceive depth was confirmed by the visual cliff study designed by Eleanor Gibson. When infants were placed on a plexiglass surface, they crawled when it was over a shallow depth, but stopped moving when the depth was greater.

    Gibson’s Differentiation Theory

    Eleanor and James Gibson were psychologists who specialized in the study of infant perception; however, Eleanor Gibson’s work on infant perception was more in-depth and thorough than her husband’s. Eleanor Gibson was the first to recognize that infants were born fully capable of perception, and that perception drove the process of learning. There was no need for the infant to learn to perceive; at birth, she could see and hear, touch and feel, and discern many things about her environment. Gibson sought, in her work, to answer two basic questions: “What is learned and what is the function? What instigates learning and what terminates the process?” Gibson relied on a comparative systems approach. She looked at the individual, whether an animal or human child, in its entire environment, or system. She compared this individual to others to assess the process of perception and learning.

    Eleanor Gibson giving the keynote address at the 1993 Association for Psychological Science Convention

    INVARIANT FEATURES

    DIFFERENTIATION

    ACTION POSSIBILITIES

    TODDLER EXAMPLE

    Exploration Drives Learning

    · EXPLORATION

    · AGENCY

    · FLEXIBILITY

     

    Exploration drives learning. Even before babies are capable of crawling or walking, they can see things in their environment and wish to explore those things. Once they can move to the things they see, they want to look, touch, and taste what they see–to perceive and learn all they can about the things. Multimodal exploration is the norm for infants and young children.These exploratory activities have three distinct parts: a perceptual aspect, a motor aspect, and a knowledge-gathering aspect. The child perceives a thing, locomotes to explore the thing, and uses his senses to perceive information and gain knowledge about the thing.

     

    Knowledge Check

     

    1

    Question 1

    Which of the following may support mother-infant bonding?

    Differentiation theory of perception
    The Moro reflex
    Pattern recognition
    Dynamic Systems theory

    I don’t know

    One attempt

    Submit answer

    You answered 0 out of 0 correctly. Asking up to 2.

    Lesson Overview

    The first two to three years of life are a time of rapid growth and development for human children. These years provide the basis for future learning, and physical or emotional harm during this time can cause lifelong issues with cognition, emotional control, impulse control, and even motor skills. The development of the cerebral cortex occurs during the first two to three years of life and is dependent upon both genetics and environmental factors.

    Children make leaps in physical, emotional and cognitive development in these years. Behaviorism, including classical and operant conditioning explains some amount of infant learning. In addition, the human interest in novelty supports learning through the process of habituation and recovery. Children also learn through the process of imitation of adults and others in their environment.

    A number of theories attempt to explain how children develop new skills as infants and toddlers.The Dynamic Systems theory of motor development suggests that the development of motor skills is highly individual and related to cultural values about child development. Children may develop skills in a different order, and may develop different skills depending upon their culture and parenting styles. Finally, Gibson’s Differentiation Theory of perception attempts to explain how children perceive the world and convert these perceptions into knowledge about the world.

     

    Key Terms

    CEREBRAL CORTEX

    DIFFERENTIATION THEORY OF PERCEPTION

    DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

    EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT BRAIN GROWTH

    EXPERIENCE-EXPECTANT BRAIN GROWTH

    HABITUATION

    IMITATION

    INTERMODAL PERCEPTION

    INVARIANT FEATURES

    LATERALIZATION

    LEARNING

    LOBES

    MIRROR NEURONS

    MYELINATION

    NEURONS

    PERCEPTION

    PRUNING

    RECOVERY

    REFLEXES

    SYNAPSES

    Sources

    · Adolph, Karen E. & Kretch, Kari S. (n.d.). Gibson’s Theory of Perceptual Learning. Retrieved from http://www.psych.nyu.edu/adolph/publications/AdolphKretch-inpress-GibsonTheory.pdf.

    · Fine by Nine. (n.d.). Learning Begins at Birth. Retrieved from http://www.finebynine.org/uploaded/file/Briefing%20Paper%201.pdf.

    · Gerhardstein, Peter et. al. (2006) Using Operant Techniques with Human Infants. Retrieved from https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-170113005/using-operant-techniques-w ith-humans-infants.

    · Kinser, Patricia Ann. (2000) Brain Structures and their Functions. Retrieved from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/Structure1.html.

    · Learning Theories. (n.d.). Classical and Operant Conditioning. Retrieved from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/Structure1.html.

    · Psysc613. (n.d.). Dynamic Systems Theory. Retrieved from https://psysc613.wikispaces.com/Dynamic+Systems+Theoryrant-conditioning.

    · Zero to Three. (n.d.). Brain Development. Retrieved from https://www.zerotothree.org/resources/series/frequently-asked-questions-about-bra

    1

    –

     

    What do you see as the most important things that parents can do to help

    their children at this point in their lives

    ?

     

    2

    –

     

    Next, classify those things from question one into operant or classical

    conditioning, habituation and recovery, o

    r

     

     

    imitation.

     

    Then describe how those activities support the child’s

    development

    ?

     

     

     

     

     

     

    READING

     

     

    The Physical

    Development of the

    Young Child

     

    Take a moment and think about a newborn infant

    —

    at birth, human infants are, essentially,

    completely vulnerable and helpless. Un

    like many animals, they cannot walk, consume solid

    food, or manage even the most basic tasks for their own survival. This is the price we pay for our

    brains

    —

    we are born far less developed than many creatures. Over the course of a very short time,

    around t

    wo years, that helpless newborn learns to walk and talk, to manipulate objects, to engage

    and participate in the world around her.

     

    This transition from a helpless newborn to a toddler or preschooler requires massive amounts

    of

     

    learning

    , fueled by rapid brain growth, sensorimotor development, and physical growth. The

    1- What do you see as the most important things that parents can do to help

    their children at this point in their lives?

    2- Next, classify those things from question one into operant or classical

    conditioning, habituation and recovery, or

    imitation. Then describe how those activities support the child’s

    development?

     

     

     

     

    READING

     

    The Physical

    Development of the

    Young Child

    Take a moment and think about a newborn infant–at birth, human infants are, essentially,

    completely vulnerable and helpless. Unlike many animals, they cannot walk, consume solid

    food, or manage even the most basic tasks for their own survival. This is the price we pay for our

    brains–we are born far less developed than many creatures. Over the course of a very short time,

    around two years, that helpless newborn learns to walk and talk, to manipulate objects, to engage

    and participate in the world around her.

    This transition from a helpless newborn to a toddler or preschooler requires massive amounts

    of learning, fueled by rapid brain growth, sensorimotor development, and physical growth. The

Existential Questions And Post-Traumatic Growth

/in /by

Upon hearing the stories of sometimes horrific atrocities clients or client families have experienced, you as a social worker may find yourself confronting existential questions such as Why? For example, Why do horrible events happen to good people? Why do people abuse their children?

Trying to make sense of such trauma is not easy, and you may seek answers to these existential questions your whole life. And yet, there are opportunities for growth despite trauma for both clients and social workers. This is known as post-traumatic growth, where a renewed sense purpose or a more profound outlook on life is the by-product.

In this Discussion, you work to seek meaning from the trauma your clients experience and the subsequent healing you help your clients achieve in your social work practice.

To prepare:

  • Read about trauma-informed social work, and read this article listed in the Learning Resources: Vis, J.-A., & Boynton, H. M. (2008). Spirituality and transcendent meaning making: possibilities for enhancing posttraumatic growth. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work, 27(1/2): 69–86. http://dx.doi.org.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/10.1080/15426430802113814

Post:

  • In 1 sentence, identify an existential question with which you have grappled in relation to a client who has been traumatized.
    • Reflect on your fieldwork, or perhaps identify an existential question that might arise in working with the client in the case study you have selected throughout the course. (Case Study of Jack Levy)
  • In 3 to 4 brief sentences, describe where there is potential for growth for the client as a result of the trauma.
  • In 3 to 4 brief sentences, explain where there is potential for growth for you, the social worker, as a result of listening to the client’s stories and bearing witness to their trauma.
  • Describe any challenges you may experience between the meaning you hold based on your personal beliefs and working within the client’s potentially different belief framework.

    1

    Theory Into Practice: Four Social Work Case Studies In this course, you select one of the following four case studies and use it throughout the entire course. By doing this, you will have the opportunity to see how different theories guide your view of a client and that client’s presenting problem. Each time you return to the same case, you use a different theory, and your perspective of the problem changes—which then changes how you ask assessment questions and how you intervene. These case studies are based on the video- and web-based case studies you encounter in the MSW program.

    Table of Contents Tiffani Bradley ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2 Paula Cortez ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 9 Jake Levey …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 10 Helen Petrakis ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13

     

     

     

    2

    Tiffani Bradley Identifying Data: Tiffani Bradley is a 16-year-old Caucasian female. She was raised in

    a Christian family in Philadelphia, PA. She is of German descent. Tiffani’s family consists of her father, Robert, 38 years old; her mother, Shondra, 33 years old, and her sister, Diana, 13 years old. Tiffani currently resides in a group home, Teens First, a brand new, court-mandated teen counseling program for adolescent victims of sexual exploitation and human trafficking. Tiffani has been provided room and board in the residential treatment facility for the past 3 months. Tiffani describes herself as heterosexual.

    Presenting Problem: Tiffani has a history of running away. She has been arrested on

    three occasions for prostitution in the last 2 years. Tiffani has recently been court ordered to reside in a group home with counseling. She has a continued desire to be reunited with her pimp, Donald. After 3 months at Teens First, Tiffani said that she had a strong desire to see her sister and her mother. She had not seen either of them in over 2 years and missed them very much. Tiffani is confused about the path to follow. She is not sure if she wants to return to her family and sibling or go back to Donald.

    Family Dynamics: Tiffani indicates that her family worked well together until 8 years

    ago. She reports that around the age of 8, she remembered being awakened by music and laughter in the early hours of the morning. When she went downstairs to investigate, she saw her parents and her Uncle Nate passing a pipe back and forth between them. She remembered asking them what they were doing and her mother saying, “adult things” and putting her back in bed. Tiffani remembers this happening on several occasions. Tiffani also recalls significant changes in the home’s appearance. The home, which was never fancy, was always neat and tidy. During this time, however, dust would gather around the house, dishes would pile up in the sink, dirt would remain on the floor, and clothes would go for long periods of time without being washed. Tiffani began cleaning her own clothes and making meals for herself and her sister. Often there was not enough food to feed everyone, and Tiffani and her sister would go to bed hungry. Tiffani believed she was responsible for helping her mom so that her mom did not get so overwhelmed. She thought that if she took care of the home and her sister, maybe that would help mom return to the person she was before.

    Sometimes Tiffani and her sister would come downstairs in the morning to find empty beer cans and liquor bottles on the kitchen table along with a crack pipe. Her parents would be in the bedroom, and Tiffani and her sister would leave the house and go to school by themselves. The music and noise downstairs continued for the next 6 years, which escalated to screams and shouting and sounds of people fighting. Tiffani remembers her mom one morning yelling at her dad to “get up and go to work.” Tiffani and Diana saw their dad come out of the bedroom and slap their mom so hard she was knocked down. Dad then went back into the bedroom. Tiffani

     

     

    3

    remembers thinking that her mom was not doing what she was supposed to do in the house, which is what probably angered her dad.

    Shondra and Robert have been separated for a little over a year and have started dating other people. Diana currently resides with her mother and Anthony, 31 years old, who is her mother’s new boyfriend.

    Educational History: Tiffani attends school at the group home, taking general education classes for her general education development (GED) credential. Diana attends Town Middle School and is in the 8th grade.

    Employment History: Tiffani reports that her father was employed as a welding

    apprentice and was waiting for the opportunity to join the union. Eight years ago, he was laid off due to financial constraints at the company. He would pick up odd jobs for the next 8 years but never had steady work after that. Her mother works as a home health aide. Her work is part-time, and she has been unable to secure full-time work.

    Social History: Over the past 2 years, Tiffani has had limited contact with her family

    members and has not been attending school. Tiffani did contact her sister Diana a few times over the 2-year period and stated that she missed her very much. Tiffani views Donald as her “husband” (although they were never married) and her only friend. Previously, Donald sold Tiffani to a pimp, “John T.” Tiffani reports that she was very upset Donald did this and that she wants to be reunited with him, missing him very much. Tiffani indicates that she knows she can be a better “wife” to him. She has tried to make contact with him by sending messages through other people, as John T. did not allow her access to a phone. It appears that over the last 2 years, Tiffani has had neither outside support nor interactions with anyone beyond Donald, John T., and some other young women who were prostituting.

    Mental Health History: On many occasions Tiffani recalls that when her mother was

    not around, Uncle Nate would ask her to sit on his lap. Her father would sometimes ask her to show them the dance that she had learned at school. When she danced, her father and Nate would laugh and offer her pocket change. Sometimes, their friend Jimmy joined them. One night, Tiffani was awakened by her uncle Nate and his friend Jimmy. Her parents were apparently out, and they were the only adults in the home. They asked her if she wanted to come downstairs and show them the new dances she learned at school. Once downstairs Nate and Jimmy put some music on and started to dance. They asked Tiffani to start dancing with them, which she did. While they were dancing, Jimmy spilled some beer on her. Nate said she had to go to the bathroom to clean up. Nate, Jimmy, and Tiffani all went to the bathroom. Nate asked Tiffani to take her clothes off and get in the bath. Tiffani hesitated to do this, but Nate insisted it was OK since he and Jimmy were family. Tiffani eventually relented and began to wash up. Nate would tell her that she missed a spot and would scrub the area with his hands. Incidents like this continued to occur with increasing levels of molestation each time.

     

     

    4

    The last time it happened, when Tiffani was 14, she pretended to be willing to dance

    for them, but when she got downstairs, she ran out the front door of the house. Tiffani vividly remembers the fear she felt the nights Nate and Jimmy touched her, and she was convinced they would have raped her if she stayed in the house.

    About halfway down the block, a car stopped. The man introduced himself as Donald,

    and he indicated that he would take care of her and keep her safe when these things happened. He then offered to be her boyfriend and took Tiffani to his apartment. Donald insisted Tiffani drink beer. When Tiffani was drunk, Donald began kissing her, and they had sex. Tiffani was also afraid that if she did not have sex, Donald would not let her stay— she had nowhere else to go. For the next 3 days, Donald brought her food and beer and had sex with her several more times. Donald told Tiffani that she was not allowed to do anything without his permission. This included watching TV, going to the bathroom, taking a shower, and eating and drinking. A few weeks later, Donald bought Tiffani a dress, explaining to her that she was going to “find a date” and get men to pay her to have sex. When Tiffani said she did not want to do that, Donald hit her several times. Donald explained that if she didn’t do it, he would get her sister Diana and make her do it instead. Out of fear for her sister, Tiffani relented and did what Donald told her to do. She thought at this point her only purpose in life was to be a sex object, listen, and obey—and then she would be able to keep the relationships and love she so desired.

    Legal History: Tiffani has been arrested three times for prostitution. Right before the

    most recent charge, a new state policy was enacted to protect youth 16 years and younger from prosecution and jail time for prostitution. The Safe Harbor for Exploited Children Act allows the state to define Tiffani as a sexually exploited youth, and therefore the state will not imprison her for prostitution. She was mandated to services at the Teens First agency, unlike her prior arrests when she had been sent to detention.

    Alcohol and Drug Use History: Tiffani’s parents were social drinkers until about 8

    years ago. At that time Uncle Nate introduced them to crack cocaine. Tiffani reports using alcohol when Donald wanted her to since she wanted to please him, and she thought this was the way she would be a good “wife.” She denies any other drug use.

    Medical History: During intake, it was noted that Tiffani had multiple bruises and burn

    marks on her legs and arms. She reported that Donald had slapped her when he felt she did not behave and that John T. burned her with cigarettes. She had realized that she did some things that would make them mad, and she tried her hardest to keep them pleased even though she did not want to be with John T. Tiffani has been treated for several sexually transmitted infections (STIs) at local clinics and is currently on an antibiotic for a kidney infection. Although she was given condoms by Donald and John T. for her “dates,” there were several “Johns” who refused to use them.

     

     

     

    5

    Strengths: Tiffani is resilient in learning how to survive the negative relationships she has been involved with. She has as sense of protection for her sister and will sacrifice herself to keep her sister safe.

    Robert Bradley: father, 38 years old Shondra Bradley: mother, 33 years old Nate Bradley: uncle, 36 years old Tiffani Bradley: daughter, 16 years old Diana Bradley: daughter, 13 years old Donald: Tiffani’s self-described husband and her former pimp Anthony: Shondra’s live-in partner, 31 years old John T.: Tiffani’s most recent pimp

     

     

     

    6

    Paula Cortez

    Identifying Data: Paula Cortez is a 43-year-old Catholic Hispanic female residing in New York City, NY. Paula was born in Colombia. When she was 17 years old, Paula left Colombia and moved to New York where she met David, who later became her husband. Paula and David have one son, Miguel, 20 years old. They divorced after 5 years of marriage. Paula has a five-year-old daughter, Maria, from a different relationship.

    Presenting Problem: Paula has multiple medical issues, and there is concern about

    whether she will be able to continue to care for her youngest child, Maria. Paula has been overwhelmed, especially since she again stopped taking her medication. Paula is also concerned about the wellness of Maria.

    Family Dynamics: Paula comes from a moderately well-to-do family. Paula reports

    suffering physical and emotional abuse at the hands of both her parents, eventually fleeing to New York to get away from the abuse. Paula comes from an authoritarian family where her role was to be “seen and not heard.” Paula states that she did not feel valued by any of her family members and reports never receiving the attention she needed. As a teenager, she realized she felt “not good enough” in her family system, which led to her leaving for New York and looking for “someone to love me.” Her parents still reside in Colombia with Paula’s two siblings.

    Paula met David when she sought to purchase drugs. They married when Paula was 18 years old. The couple divorced after 5 years of marriage. Paula raised Miguel, mostly by herself, until he was 8 years old, at which time she was forced to relinquish custody due to her medical condition. Paula maintains a relationship with her son, Miguel, and her ex-husband, David. Miguel takes part in caring for his half-sister, Maria.

    Paula does believe her job as a mother is to take care of Maria but is finding that more and more challenging with her physical illnesses.

    Employment History: Paula worked for a clothing designer, but she realized that her true

    passion was painting. She has a collection of more than 100 drawings and paintings, many of which track the course of her personal and emotional journey. Paula held a full- time job for a number of years before her health prevented her from working. She is now unemployed and receives Supplemental Security Disability Insurance (SSD) and Medicaid. Miguel does his best to help his mom but only works part time at a local supermarket delivering groceries.

    Paula currently uses federal and state services. Paula successfully applied for WIC, the

    federal Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children. Given Paula’s low income, health, and Medicaid status, Paula is able to receive in-home childcare assistance through New York’s public assistance program.

     

     

     

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    Social History: Paula is bilingual, fluent in both Spanish and English. Although Paula identifies as Catholic, she does not consider religion to be a big part of her life. Paula lives with her daughter in an apartment in Queens, NY. Paula is socially isolated as she has limited contact with her family in Colombia and lacks a peer network of any kind in her neighborhood.

    Five (5) years ago Paula met a man (Jesus) at a flower shop. They spoke several times. He would visit her at her apartment to have sex. Since they had an active sex life, Paula thought he was a “stand-up guy” and really liked him. She believed he would take care of her. Soon everything changed. Paula began to suspect that he was using drugs, because he had started to become controlling and demanding. He showed up at her apartment at all times of the night demanding to be let in. He called her relentlessly, and when she did not pick up the phone, he left her mean and threatening messages. Paula was fearful for her safety and thought her past behavior with drugs and sex brought on bad relationships with men and that she did not deserve better. After a couple of months, Paula realized she was pregnant. Jesus stated he did not want anything to do with the “kid” and stopped coming over, but he continued to contact and threaten Paula by phone. Paula has no contact with Jesus at this point in time due to a restraining order.

    Mental Health History: Paula was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. She experiences

    periods of mania lasting for a couple of weeks then goes into a depressive state for months when not properly medicated. Paula has a tendency toward paranoia. Paula has a history of not complying with her psychiatric medication treatment because she does not like the way it makes her feel. She often discontinues it without telling her psychiatrist. Paula has had multiple psychiatric hospitalizations but has remained out of the hospital for the past 5 years. Paula accepts her bipolar diagnosis but demonstrates limited insight into the relationship between her symptoms and her medication.

    Paula reports that when she was pregnant, she was fearful for her safety due to the baby’s father’s anger about the pregnancy. Jesus’ relentless phone calls and voicemails rattled Paula. She believed she had nowhere to turn. At that time, she became scared, slept poorly, and her paranoia increased significantly. After completing a suicide assessment 5 years ago, it was noted that Paula was decompensating quickly and was at risk of harming herself and/or her baby. Paula was involuntarily admitted to the psychiatric unit of the hospital. Paula remained on the unit for 2 weeks.

    Educational History: Paula completed high school in Colombia. Paula had hoped to

    attend the Fashion Institute of Technology (FIT) in New York City, but getting divorced, then raising Miguel on her own interfered with her plans. Miguel attends college full time in New York City.

    Medical History: Paula was diagnosed as HIV positive 15 years ago. Paula acquired

    AIDS three years later when she was diagnosed with a severe brain infection and a T- cell count of less than 200. Paula’s brain infection left her completely paralyzed on the right side. She lost function in her right arm and hand as well as the ability to walk. After

     

     

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    a long stay in an acute care hospital in New York City, Paula was transferred to a skilled nursing facility (SNF) where she thought she would die. After being in the skilled nursing facility for more than a year, Paula regained the ability to walk, although she does so with a severe limp. She also regained some function in her right arm. Her right hand (her dominant hand) remains semi-paralyzed and limp. Over the course of several years, Paula taught herself to paint with her left hand and was able to return to her beloved art.

    Paula began treatment for her HIV/AIDS with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Since she ran away from the family home, married and divorced a drug user, then was in an abusive relationship, Paula thought she deserved what she got in life. She responded well to HAART and her HIV/AIDS was well controlled. In addition to her HIV/AIDS disease, Paula is diagnosed with Hepatitis C (Hep C). While this condition was controlled, it has reached a point where Paula’s doctor is recommending she begin a new treatment. Paula also has significant circulatory problems, which cause her severe pain in her lower extremities. She uses prescribed narcotic pain medication to control her symptoms. Paula’s circulatory problems have also led to chronic ulcers on her feet that will not heal. Treatment for her foot ulcers demands frequent visits to a wound care clinic. Paula’s pain paired with the foot ulcers make it difficult for her to ambulate and leave her home. Paula has a tendency not to comply with her medical treatment. She often disregards instructions from her doctors and resorts to holistic treatments like treating her ulcers with chamomile tea. When she stops her treatment, she deteriorates quickly.

    Maria was born HIV negative and received the appropriate HAART treatment after birth. She spent a week in the neonatal intensive care unit as she had to detox from the effects of the pain medication Paula took throughout her pregnancy.

    Legal History: Previously, Paula used the AIDS Law Project, a not-for-profit organization

    that helps individuals with HIV address legal issues, such as those related to the child’s father . At that time, Paula filed a police report in response to Jesus’ escalating threats and successfully got a restraining order. Once the order was served, the phone calls and visits stopped, and Paula regained a temporary sense of control over her life.

    Paula completed the appropriate permanency planning paperwork with the assistance of the organization The Family Center. She named Miguel as her daughter’s guardian should something happen to her.

    Alcohol and Drug Use History: Paula became an intravenous drug user (IVDU), using

    cocaine and heroin, at age 17. David was one of Paula’s “drug buddies” and suppliers. Paula continued to use drugs in the United States for several years; however, she stopped when she got pregnant with Miguel. David continued to use drugs, which led to the failure of their marriage.

    Strengths: Paula has shown her resilience over the years. She has artistic skills and has

    found a way to utilize them. Paula has the foresight to seek social services to help her

     

     

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    and her children survive. Paula has no legal involvement. She has the ability to bounce back from her many physical and health challenges to continue to care for her child and maintain her household. David Cortez: father, 46 years old Paula Cortez: mother, 43 years old Miguel Cortez: son, 20 years old Jesus (unknown): Maria’s father, 44 years old Maria Cortez: daughter, 5 years old

     

     

     

     

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    Jake Levy Identifying Data: Jake Levy is a 31-year-old, married, Jewish Caucasian male. Jake’s

    wife, Sheri, is 28 years old. They have two sons, Myles (10) and Levi (8). The family resides in a two-bedroom condominium in a middle-class neighborhood in Rockville, MD. They have been married for 10 years.

    Presenting Problem: Jake, an Iraq War veteran, came to the Veterans Affairs Health

    Care Center (VA) for services because his wife has threatened to leave him if he does not get help. She is particularly concerned about his drinking and lack of involvement in their sons’ lives. She told him his drinking has gotten out of control and is making him mean and distant. Jake reports that he and his wife have been fighting a lot and that he drinks to take the edge off and to help him sleep. Jake expresses fear of losing his job and his family if he does not get help. Jake identifies as the primary provider for his family and believes that this is his responsibility as a husband and father. Jake realizes he may be putting that in jeopardy because of his drinking. He says he has never seen Sheri so angry before, and he saw she was at her limit with him and his behaviors.

    Family Dynamics: Jake was born in Alabama to a Caucasian, Eurocentric family

    system. He reports his time growing up to have been within a “normal” family system. However, he states that he was never emotionally close to either parent and viewed himself as fairly independent from a young age. His dad had previously been in the military and was raised with the understanding that his duty is to support his country. His family displayed traditional roles, with his dad supporting the family after he was discharged from military service. Jake was raised to believe that real men do not show weakness and must be the head of the household.

    Jake’s parents are deceased, and he has a sister who lives outside London. He and his sister are not very close but do talk twice a year. Sheri is an only child, and although her mother lives in the area, she offers little support. Her mother never approved of Sheri marrying Jake and thinks Sheri needs to deal with their problems on her own. Jake reports that he has not been engaged with his sons at all since his return from Iraq, and he keeps to himself when he is at home.

    Employment History: Jake is employed as a human resources assistant for the

    military. Jake works in an office with civilians and military personnel and mostly gets along with people in the office. Jake is having difficulty getting up in the morning to go to work, which increases the stress between Sheri and himself. Shari is a special education teacher in a local elementary school. Jake thinks it is his responsibility to provide for his family and is having stress over what is happening to him at home and work. He thinks he is failing as a provider.

    Social History: Jake and Sheri identify as Jewish and attend a local synagogue on

    major holidays. Jake tends to keep to himself and says he sometimes feels pressured to be more communicative and social. Jake believes he is socially inept

     

     

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    and not able to develop friendships. The couple has some friends, since Shari gets involved with the parents in their sons’ school. However, because of Jake’s recent behaviors, they have become socially isolated. He is very worried that Sheri will leave him due to the isolation.

    Mental Health History: Jake reports that since his return to civilian life 10 months ago,

    he has difficulty sleeping, frequent heart palpitations, and moodiness. Jake had seen Dr. Zoe, a psychiatrist at the VA, who diagnosed him with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Dr. Zoe prescribed Paxil to help reduce his symptoms of anxiety and depression and suggested that he also begin counseling. Jake says that he does not really understand what PTSD is but thought it meant that a person who had it was “going crazy,” which at times he thought was happening to him. He expresses concern that he will never feel “normal” again and says that when he drinks alcohol, his symptoms and the intensity of his emotions ease. Jake describes that he sometimes thinks he is back in Iraq, which makes him feel uneasy and watchful. He hates the experience and tries to numb it. He has difficulty sleeping and is irritable, so he isolates himself and soothes this with drinking. He talks about always feeling “ready to go.” He says he is exhausted from being always alert and looking for potential problems around him. Every sound seems to startle him. He shares that he often thinks about what happened “over there” but tries to push it out of his mind. Nighttime is the worst, as he has terrible recurring nightmares of one particular event. He says he wakes up shaking and sweating most nights. He adds that drinking is the one thing that seems to give him a little relief.

    Educational History: Sheri has a bachelor’s degree in special education from a local

    college. Jake has a high school diploma but wanted to attend college upon his return from the military.

    Military History: Jake is an Iraqi War veteran. He enlisted in the Marines at 21 years

    old when he and Shari got married due to Sheri being pregnant. The family was stationed in several states prior to Jake being deployed to Iraq. Jake left the service 10 months ago. Sheri and Jake had used military housing since his marriage, making it easier to support the family. On military bases, there was a lot of social support and both Jake and Sheri took full advantage of the social systems available to them during that time.

    Medical History: Jake is physically fit, but an injury he sustained in combat sometimes

    limits his ability to use his left hand. Jake reports sometimes feeling inadequate because of the reduction in the use of his hand and tries to push through because he worries how the injury will impact his responsibilities as a provider, husband, and father. Jake considers himself resilient enough to overcome this disadvantage and “be able to do the things I need to do.” Sheri is in good physical condition and has recently found out that she is pregnant with their third child.

    Legal History: Jake and Sheri deny having criminal histories.

     

     

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    Alcohol and Drug Use History: As teenagers, Jake and Sheri used marijuana and drank. Both deny current use of marijuana but report they still drink. Sheri drinks socially and has one or two drinks over the weekend. Jake reports that he has four to five drinks in the evenings during the week and eight to ten drinks on Saturdays and Sundays. Jake spends his evenings on the couch drinking beer and watching TV or playing video games. Shari reports that Jake drinks more than he realizes, doubling what Jake has reported.

    Strengths: Jake is cognizant of his limitations and has worked on overcoming his

    physical challenges. Jake is resilient. Jake did not have any disciplinary actions taken against him in the military. He is dedicated to his wife and family.

    Jake Levy: father, 31 years old Sheri Levy: mother, 28 years old Myles Levy: son, 10 years old Levi Levy: son, 8 years old

     

     

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    Helen Petrakis Identifying Data: Helen Petrakis is a 52-year-old, Caucasian female of Greek descent

    living in a four-bedroom house in Tarpon Springs, FL. Her family consists of her husband, John (60), son, Alec (27), daughter, Dmitra (23), and daughter Althima (18). John and Helen have been married for 30 years. They married in the Greek Orthodox Church and attend services weekly.

    Presenting Problem: Helen reports feeling overwhelmed and “blue.” She was referred

    by a close friend who thought Helen would benefit from having a person who would listen. Although she is uncomfortable talking about her life with a stranger, Helen says that she decided to come for therapy because she worries about burdening friends with her troubles. John has been expressing his displeasure with meals at home, as Helen has been cooking less often and brings home takeout. Helen thinks she is inadequate as a wife. She states that she feels defeated; she describes an incident in which her son, Alec, expressed disappointment in her because she could not provide him with clean laundry. Helen reports feeling overwhelmed by her responsibilities and believes she can’t handle being a wife, mother, and caretaker any longer.

    Family Dynamics: Helen describes her marriage as typical of a traditional Greek

    family. John, the breadwinner in the family, is successful in the souvenir shop in town. Helen voices a great deal of pride in her children. Dmitra is described as smart, beautiful, and hardworking. Althima is described as adorable and reliable. Helen shops, cooks, and cleans for the family, and John sees to yard care and maintaining the family’s cars. Helen believes the children are too busy to be expected to help around the house, knowing that is her role as wife and mother. John and Helen choose not to take money from their children for any room or board. The Petrakis family holds strong family bonds within a large and supportive Greek community.

    Helen is the primary caretaker for Magda (John’s 81-year-old widowed mother), who lives in an apartment 30 minutes away. Until recently, Magda was self-sufficient, coming for weekly family dinners and driving herself shopping and to church. Six months ago, she fell and broke her hip and was also recently diagnosed with early signs of dementia. Helen and John hired a reliable and trusted woman temporarily to check in on Magda a couple of days each week. Helen would go and see Magda on the other days, sometimes twice in one day, depending on Magda’s needs. Helen would go food shopping for Magda, clean her home, pay her bills, and keep track of Magda’s medications. Since Helen thought she was unable to continue caretaking for both Magda and her husband and kids, she wanted the helper to come in more often, but John said they could not afford it. The money they now pay to the helper is coming out of the couple’s vacation savings. Caring for Magda makes Helen think she is failing as a wife and mother because she no longer has time to spend with her husband and children.

     

     

     

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    Helen spoke to her husband, John (the family decision maker), and they agreed to have Alec (their son) move in with Magda (his grandmother) to help relieve Helen’s burden and stress. John decided to pay Alec the money typically given to Magda’s helper. This has not decreased the burden on Helen since she had to be at the apartment at least once daily to intervene with emergencies that Alec is unable to manage independently. Helen’s anxiety has increased since she noted some of Magda’s medications were missing, the cash box was empty, Magda’s checkbook had missing checks, and jewelry from Greece, which had been in the family for generations, was also gone.

    Helen comes from a close-knit Greek Orthodox family where women are responsible for maintaining the family system and making life easier for their husbands and children. She was raised in the community where she currently resides. Both her parents were born in Greece and came to the United States after their marriage to start a family and give them a better life. Helen has a younger brother and a younger sister. She was responsible for raising her siblings since both her parents worked in a fishery they owned. Helen feared her parents’ disappointment if she did not help raise her siblings. Helen was very attached to her parents and still mourns their loss. She idolized her mother and empathized with the struggles her mother endured raising her own family. Helen reports having that same fear of disappointment with her husband and children.

    Employment History: Helen has worked part time at a hospital in the billing

    department since graduating from high school. John Petrakis owns a Greek souvenir shop in town and earns the larger portion of the family income. Alec is currently unemployed, which Helen attributes to the poor economy. Dmitra works as a sales consultant for a major department store in the mall. Althima is an honors student at a local college and earns spending money as a hostess in a family friend’s restaurant. During town events, Dmitra and Althima help in the souvenir shop when they can.

    Social History: The Petrakis family live in a community centered on the activities of the

    Greek Orthodox Church. Helen has used her faith to help her through the more difficult challenges of not believing she is performing her “job” as a wife and mother. Helen reports that her children are religious but do not regularly go to church because they are very busy. Helen has stopped going shopping and out to eat with friends because she can no longer find the time since she became a caretaker for Magda.

    Mental Health History: Helen consistently appears well groomed. She speaks clearly

    and in moderate tones and seems to have linear thought progression—her memory seems intact. She claims no history of drug or alcohol abuse, and she does not identify a history of trauma. More recently, Helen is overwhelmed by thinking she is inadequate. She stopped socializing and finds no activity enjoyable. In some situations in her life, she is feeling powerless.

     

     

     

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    Educational History: Helen and John both have high school diplomas. Helen is proud of her children knowing she was the one responsible in helping them with their homework. Alec graduated high school and chose not to attend college. Dmitra attempted college but decided that was not the direction she wanted. Althima is an honors student at a local college.

    Medical History: Helen has chronic back pain from an old injury, which she manages

    with acetaminophen as needed. Helen reports having periods of tightness in her chest and a feeling that her heart was racing along with trouble breathing and thinking that she might pass out. One time, John brought her to the emergency room. The hospital ran tests but found no conclusive organic reason to explain Helen’s symptoms. She continues to experience shortness of breath, usually in the morning when she is getting ready to begin her day. She says she has trouble staying asleep, waking two to four times each night, and she feels tired during the day. Working is hard because she is more forgetful than she has ever been. Helen says that she feels like her body is one big tired knot.

    Legal History: The only member of the Petrakis family that has legal involvement is

    Alec. He was arrested about 2 years ago for possession of marijuana. He was required to attend an inpatient rehabilitation program (which he completed) and was sentenced to 2 years’ probation. Helen was devastated, believing John would be disappointed in her for not raising Alec properly.

    Alcohol and Drug Use History: Helen has no history of drug use and only drinks at

    community celebrations. Alec has struggled with drugs and alcohol since he was a teen. Helen wants to believe Alec is maintaining his sobriety and gives him the benefit of the doubt. Alec is currently on 2 years’ probation for possession and has recently completed an inpatient rehabilitation program. Helen feels responsible for his addiction and wonders what she did wrong as a mother.

    Strengths: Helen has a high school diploma and has been successful at raising her

    family. She has developed a social support system, not only in the community but also within her faith at the Greek Orthodox Church. Helen is committed to her family system and their success. Helen does have the ability to multitask, taking care of her immediate family as well as fulfilling her obligation to her mother-in-law. Even under the current stressful circumstances, Helen is assuming and carrying out her responsibilities.

    John Petrakis: father, 60 years old Helen Petrakis: mother, 52 years old Alec Petrakis: son, 27 years old Dmitra Petrakis: daughter, 23 years old Althima Petrakis: daughter, 18 years old Magda Petrakis: John’s mother, 81 years old

Discussion: Attention And Consciousness

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Attention is a cognitive function that plays a central role in almost everything we do throughout the day. Based on this week’s readings, discuss the area/aspect of attention that you think is most important for or most influential on cognition. For example, when is vigilance or divided attention important for cognitive processing? Or how can unconscious processing influence our perception of an item? Be sure to support your opinions with specific terms and theories from the readings. How could you apply the ideas you have discussed to different settings, for example, in driving or advertising?

please follow and support the questions in detail.

No Grammar issue , No Plag APA format.

I will add a student paper under here

Student Answer below do not copy rewrite your own answer

Student Answer

 

Attention is choosing and processing a specific amount of information from all of the information that is being absorbed by our senses, stored memories and other cognitive processes (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2017, p. 119). The four main areas of attention are signal detection and vigilance, search, selective attention and divided attention. Although they are each very important depending on the circumstances, selective attentions stands out to be the most important for cognition. For cognitive processes to happen, a person has to be able to pay attention to and focus on something for a certain amount of time.

There are several “filter and bottleneck” theories to help explain selective attention. A filter blocks some of the information going through, selecting only a part of it while the bottleneck slows down the information that is passing through (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2017, p. 128). This can be explained more with the Early Filter Model by Donald Broadbent which says that all information comes through and is stored in sensory memory for a very short period of time. It is then moved forward to a filter that will only allow one message to move forward again and be processed in more detail. From our short-term memory, we can pick and choose which information we want to keep and use later.

This is important for cognitive processing because if we were not able to selectively focus on certain information while other conversations around us are happening, it would be too hard to process the information and store it for later use. A weakness of this is that sometimes the information that is picked up on is due to the loudness, pitch, accent (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2017) or sometimes whatever information sounds more exciting versus what is more important. This is known as the cocktail party problem. For those who are not very good with divided attention, selective attention is very important when driving past an accident. At the same time, divided attention is more important for drivers than selective because there is always a lot to look out for while driving.

References

Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2016). Cognitive Psychology (7th ed.) Boston: MA. Cengage Learning. P. 117-154.

Hypnosis

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Exploring PSYCHOLOGY

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INTERNATIONAL EDITION

Special Contributor

C. Nathan DeWall, University of Kentucky

WORTH PUBLISHERS

Hope College Holland, Michigan

David G. Myers

Exploring PSYCHOLOGY

NINTH EDITION

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Senior Vice President, Editorial and Production: Catherine Woods Publisher: Kevin Feyen Executive Marketing Manager: Katherine Nurre Development Editors: Christine Brune, Nancy Fleming Director of Print and Digital Development: Tracey Kuehn Media Editor: Elizabeth Block Supplements Editors: Betty Probert, Nadina Persaud Photo Editor: Bianca Moscatelli Photo Researcher: Donna Ranieri Art Director: Babs Reingold Cover Designers: Lyndall Culbertson and Babs Reingold Interior and Chapter Opener Designer: Charles Yuen Layout Designer: Lee Ann McKevitt Cover Photo Illustrator: Lyndall Culbertson Associate Managing Editor: Lisa Kinne Project Editor: Jeanine Furino Marketing Assistant: Julie Tompkins Illustration Coordinators: Bill Page, Janice Donnola Illustrations: TSI Graphics, Keith Kasnot, Todd Buck Production Manager: Sarah Segal Composition: TSI Graphics Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley

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international

Photo Credits: Cover: Profi le of smiling woman: JGI/Jamie Grill/Getty Images; Man taking a photo: Pedro Vidal/Shutterstock; Mother with baby daughter: Erik Isakson/age fotostock; Circus juggler: RubberBall/SuperStock; Chapter 1: pp. viii, xlii–1, 31, 33: Spiral: Charles Yuen; Water: Photodisc/Getty Images; Rabbit: Mike Kemp/ Getty Images; Magnifying glass: Charles Yuen; MRI: Living Art Enterprises, LLC/Photo Researchers, Inc.; Infant: Lane Oatey/Getty Images; Man holding boxes: Erik Isakson/ age fotostock; Girl studying: OJO Images Ltd/Alamy. Chapter 2: pp. viii, 34–35 and 72, 75: Circuit boards: Charles Yuen; Female kicking: Lev Olkha /Shutterstock; Fox: Eric Isselée/Shutterstock; Brain scan: Zephyr/Photo Researchers, Inc.; Butterfl y: Dim154/ Shutterstock. Chapter 3: pp. ix, 76–77 and 113, 115: Butterfl ies: Svetlana Larina/ istockphoto; Butterfl ies: polarica/istockphoto; Cup of coffee: Vasca/Shutterstock; Sleeping toddler: swissmacky/Shutterstock; Woman meditating: INSADCO Photography/Alamy. Chapter 4: pp. ix, 116–117 and 159, 161: Bucket in sand: René/istockphoto; Beach and palm tree: Charles Yuen; Beach ball: WendellandCarolyn/istockphoto; Mother helping daugh- ter with homework: Indeed/Getty Images; Teens texting: Allan Shoemake/Getty Images; Bride and groom: bluehand/Shutterstock; Mother holding baby: Erik Isakson/age fotostock; Baby being fed with spoon: Asia Images/Getty Images. Chapter 5: pp. ix, 162–163 and 187, 189: Petri dish: Samuel Ashfi eld/Photo Researchers, Inc.; Chromosomes: Pasieka/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; Swans: The Boston Globe/John Tlumacki; Dad and child: MGP/ Getty Images; Teenagers of different heights: Rob Lewine/Getty Images; She-male: vita khorzhevska/Shutterstock; Teenage couple: Petrenko Andriy/Shutterstock. Chapter 6: pp. x, 190–191 and 232, 235: Herbs: Ivonne Wierink/Shutterstock; Herbs: Margrit Hirsch/ Shutterstock; Citrus: Lauren Burke/Jupiterimages; Man with cello: sbarabu/Shutterstock; Child kissing mother’s face: Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc./Blend Images/Corbis; Woman holding fl ower: Asia Images Group/Superstock. Chapter 7: pp. x, 236–237 and 267, 269: Nest with eggs: Duncan Usher/Foto Natura/Getty Images; Trees: Yuriy Kulyk/Shutterstock, Tungphoto/Shutterstock, irin-k/Shutterstock, Perfect Picture Parts/Alamy; Cat: Eric Isselée/Shutterstock; Pigeon: Vitaly Titov & Maria SideInikova/Shutterstock; Kids playing videogames: Stanislav Sointsev/Getty Images; Dog doing stunts: Marina Jay/Shutterstock; Girl on laptop: Lauren Burke/Getty Images; People with books on heads: Image Source/ SuperStock. Chapter 8: pp. xi, 270–271 and 301, 303: Film strips: Charles Yuen; Mouse trap: Darren Matthews/Alamy; Cookie: Jean Sandler/FeaturePics; Girl studying: Sigrid Olsson/PhotoAlto/Corbis; Man taking photo: Pedro Vidal/Shutterstock; Hot air balloon: D. Hurst/Alamy. Chapter 9: pp. xi, 304–305 and 347, 349: Various balls: Charles Yuen; Woman running hurdles: Ocean/Corbis; Man doing crossword: Ann Baldwin/Shutterstock; Puzzle pieces: Alexey Lebedev/Shutterstock; Woman shooting basketball: Blend Images/ Jupiterimages; Man playing saxophone: Masterfi le (Royalty-Free Division); Elephant: Johan Swanepoel/Alamy. Chapter 10: pp. xii, 350–351 and 386: Vietnam landscape: Charles Yuen; Girl using cell phone: Thomas Northcut/Jupiterimages; Woman on treadmill: PhotoObjects.net/Jupiterimages; Teenage boys: Photodisc/Jupiterimages; Woman with arms raised: Mark Andersen/agefotostock. Chapter 11: pp. xii, 389–390 and 419, 421: Fruit and vegetables: Charles Yuen; Two women laughing: Mark Andersen/Getty Images; Man look- ing angry: PhotoSpin, Inc./Alamy; Man kissing dog: Photos.com/Getty Images; Man medi- tating: Dean Mitchell/Shutterstock; Woman touching ground: IMAGEMORE/agefotostock: Nun praying: PhotosIndia.com LLC/Alamy; Tissues, aspirin: D. Hurst/Alamy. Chapter 12: pp. xiii, 422–423 and 453, 455: Masks: Charles Yuen, Bartosz Hadyniak/istockphoto, Perry Correll/Shutterstock, brytta/istockphoto, Hemera Technologies/Jupiterimages; Happy dog: Erik Lam/Shutterstock; Centaur: Liquidlibrary/Jupiterimages; Girl: Timothy Large/Shutterstock; Circus juggler: RubberBall/Superstock. Chapter 13: pp. xiii, 456–457 and 501, 503: Aerial beach scene: Brand X Pictures; Football: Todd Taulman/ Shutterstock; Blog links: Lada Adamic and Natalie Glance; Wrench: Punchstock/Corbis; Gaming console: Microsoft Corporation; Tattooed arm: David Katzenstein/Photolibrary; Dancing couple: Photodisc/Jupiterimages. Chapter 14: pp. xiii, 504–505 and 541: Upset woman: Wavebreakmedia Ltd/Jupiterimages; Eyes: Blend Images/Alamy, Photodisc/ Getty Images; Tarantula: Martin Harvey/Jupiterimages; Snake: Hemera Technologies/ Jupiterimages; Blindfolded woman leading man: Erik Isakson/age footstock; Depressed man: Image Source/Getty Images. Chapter 15: pp. xiv, 544–545 and 578, 580: Crocus fl ow- ers through snow: Myotis/Shutterstock; Couple on bicycle: RubberBall/SuperStock; Healthy woman: RubberBall/Nicole Hill/Jupiterimages; People in rainforest: Randy Faris/Corbis.

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For Sara Neevel with gratitude for your meticulous support, and for your friendship

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vi PREFACE

DAVID MYERS received his psychology Ph.D. from the Univer- sity of Iowa. He has spent his career at Hope College in Michigan, where he has taught dozens of introductory psychology sections. Hope College students have invited him to be their commencement speaker and voted him “outstanding professor.”

His research and writings have been recognized by the Gordon Allport Intergroup Relations Prize, by a 2010 Honored Scientist award from the Federation of Associations in Behavioral & Brain Sciences, by a 2010 Award for Service on Behalf of Personality and Social Psychology, and by three honorary doctorates.

Myers’ scientific articles have, with support from National Science Foun- dation grants, appeared in three dozen scientific periodicals, including Science, American Scientist, Psychological Science, and the American Psycholo- gist. In addition to his scholarly writing and his textbooks for introduc- tory and social psychology, he also digests psychological science for the general public. His writings have appeared in four dozen magazines, from Today’s Education to Scientific American. He also has authored five general audience books, including The Pursuit of Happiness and Intuition: Its Powers and Perils.

David Myers has chaired his city’s Human Relations Commission, helped found a thriving assistance center for families in poverty, and spoken to hundreds of college and community groups. Drawing on his experience, he also has written three dozen articles and a book (A Quiet World) about hearing loss, and he is advocating a transformation in American assis- tive listening technology (see www.hearingloop.org). For his leadership, he received an American Academy of Audiology Presidential Award in 2011, and the Hearing Loss Association of America Walter T. Ridder Award in 2012.

He bikes to work year-round and plays regular pick-up basketball. David and Carol Myers have raised two sons and a daughter, and have one granddaughter.

ABOUT THE AUTHORABOUT THE AUTHOR

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PREFACE vii

BRIEF CONTENTS

Preface . . . xv

Time Management: Or, How to Be a Great Student and Still Have a Life . . . xxxiv

CHAPTER 1 Thinking Critically With Psychological Science . . . 1

CHAPTER 2 The Biology of Behavior . . . 35

CHAPTER 3 Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind . . . 77

CHAPTER 4 Developing Through the Life Span . . . 117

CHAPTER 5 Gender and Sexuality . . . 163

CHAPTER 6 Sensation and Perception . . . 191

CHAPTER 7 Learning . . . 237

CHAPTER 8 Memory . . . 271

CHAPTER 9 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence . . . 305

CHAPTER 10 Motivation and Emotion . . . 351

CHAPTER 11 Stress, Health, and Human Flourishing . . . 389

CHAPTER 12 Personality . . . 423

CHAPTER 13 Social Psychology . . . 457

CHAPTER 14 Psychological Disorders . . . 505

CHAPTER 15 Therapy . . . 545

APPENDIX A Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life . . . A-1

APPENDIX B Psychology at Work . . . B-1

APPENDIX C Subfi elds of Psychology . . . C-1

APPENDIX D Complete Chapter Reviews . . . D-1

APPENDIX E Answers to Experience the Testing Effect Questions . . . E-1

Glossary . . . G-1

References . . . R-1

Name Index . . . NI-1

Subject Index . . . SI-1 vii

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Preface . . . xv

Time Management: Or, How to Be a Great Student and Still Have a Life . . . xxxiv

Thinking Critically With Psychological Science . . . 1

CHAPTER1 What Is Psychology? . . . 2

Psychology’s Roots . . . 2

Contemporary Psychology . . . 5 Psychology’s Biggest Question . . . 5

Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis . . . 6

Psychology’s Subfi elds . . . 8

The Need for Psychological Science . . . 10 What About Intuition and Common Sense? . . . 10

The Scientifi c Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble . . . 13

Critical Thinking . . . 15

How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions? . . . 15

The Scientifi c Method . . . 15

Description . . . 17

Correlation . . . 20

Experimentation . . . 22

Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology . . . 25

Improve Your Retention—and Your Grades . . . 29

The Biology of Behavior . . . 35

CHAPTER2 Biology and Behavior . . . 36

Neural Communication . . . 36 Neurons . . . 36

The Neural Impulse . . . 37

How Neurons Communicate . . . 38

How Neurotransmitters Infl uence Us . . . 40

The Nervous System . . . 41 The Peripheral Nervous System . . . 42

The Central Nervous System . . . 44

The Endocrine System . . . 45

The Brain . . . 46 Older Brain Structures . . . 47

CLOSE UP: The Tools of Discovery—Having Our Head Examined . . . . 48

The Cerebral Cortex . . . 53

Our Divided Brain . . . 59

Right-Left Differences in the Intact Brain . . . 61

Behavior Genetics: Predicting Individual Differences . . . 62

Genes: Our Codes for Life . . . 62

Twins and Adoption Studies . . . 63

Gene-Environment Interaction . . . 67

Evolutionary Psychology: Understanding Human Nature . . . 68

Natural Selection and Adaptation . . . 69

Evolutionary Success Helps Explain Similarities . . . 70

viii

CONTENTSCONTENTS

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CONTENTS ix

Consciousness and the Two- Track Mind . . . 77

CHAPTER3 The Brain and Consciousness . . . 78

Dual Processing: The Two-Track Mind . . . 79

Selective Attention . . . 80

Sleep and Dreams . . . 83 Biological Rhythms and Sleep . . . 83

Sleep Theories . . . 88

Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Disorders . . . 89

Dreams . . . 93

Hypnosis . . . 97 Frequently Asked Questions About Hypnosis . . . 97

Explaining the Hypnotized State . . . 98

Drugs and Consciousness . . . 100 Tolerance, Dependence, and Addiction . . . 100

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: Addiction . . . 101

Types of Psychoactive Drugs . . . 102

Infl uences on Drug Use . . . 109

Developing Through the Life Span . . . 117

CHAPTER4 Developmental Psychology’s Major Issues . . . 118

Prenatal Development and the Newborn . . . 118 Conception . . . 118

Prenatal Development . . . 119

The Competent Newborn . . . 120

Infancy and Childhood . . . 121 Physical Development . . . 121

Cognitive Development . . . 124

CLOSE UP: Autism and “Mind-Blindness” . . . 130

Social Development . . . 132

Refl ections on Nature and Nurture . . . 139

Adolescence . . . 140 Physical Development . . . 140

Cognitive Development . . . 141

Social Development . . . 143

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: How Much Credit or Blame Do Parents Deserve? . . . 147

Emerging Adulthood . . . 148

Refl ections on Continuity and Stages . . . 149

Adulthood . . . 150 Physical Development . . . 150

Cognitive Development . . . 153

Social Development . . . 154

Refl ections on Stability and Change . . . 158

Gender and Sexuality . . . 163

CHAPTER5 Gender Development . . . 164

Genes: How Are We Alike? How Do We Differ? . . . 164

The Nature of Gender: Our Biology . . . 167

The Nurture of Gender: Our Culture . . . 169

Human Sexuality . . . 171 The Physiology of Sex . . . 171

The Psychology of Sex . . . 175

CLOSE UP: The Sexualization of Girls . . . 177

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x CONTENTS

Sexual Orientation . . . 178 Environment and Sexual Orientation . . . 179

Biology and Sexual Orientation . . . 180

An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality . . . 183

Gender Differences in Sexuality . . . 183

Natural Selection and Mating Preferences . . . 184

Critiquing the Evolutionary Perspective . . . 185

Refl ections on Gender, Sexuality, and Nature–Nurture Interaction . . . 185

Sensation and Perception . . . 191

CHAPTER6 Basic Principles of Sensation and Perception . . . 192

Transduction . . . 192

Thresholds. . . 193

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: Can Subliminal Messages Control Our Behavior? . . . 195

Sensory Adaptation . . . 196

Perceptual Set . . . 197

Context Effects . . . 198

Emotion and Motivation . . . 199

Vision . . . 200 The Stimulus Input: Light Energy . . . 200

The Eye . . . 200

Visual Information Processing . . . 202

Color Vision . . . 206

Visual Organization . . . 208

Visual Interpretation . . . 214

Hearing . . . 216 The Stimulus Input: Sound Waves . . . 216

The Ear. . . 216

The Other Senses . . . 220 Touch . . . 220

Pain . . . 220

Taste . . . 224

Smell . . . 225

Body Position and Movement . . . 227

Sensory Interaction . . . 227 THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: ESP—Perception

Without Sensation? . . . 230

Learning . . . 237

CHAPTER7 How Do We Learn? . . . 238

Classical Conditioning . . . 239 Pavlov’s Experiments . . . 240

Pavlov’s Legacy . . . 244

Operant Conditioning . . . 246 Skinner’s Experiments . . . 246

Skinner’s Legacy . . . 253

CLOSE UP: Training Our Partners . . . 255

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning . . . 255

Biology, Cognition, and Learning . . . 256 Biological Constraints on Conditioning . . . 256

Cognition’s Infl uence on Conditioning . . . 259

Learning by Observation . . . 261 Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain . . . 262

Applications of Observational Learning . . . 263

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: Does Viewing Media Violence Trigger Violent Behavior? . . . 265

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CONTENTS xi

Memory . . . 271

CHAPTER8 Studying Memory . . . 272

Memory Models . . . 273

Building Memories: Encoding . . . 274 Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Versus Automatic

Processing . . . 274

Automatic Processing and Implicit Memories . . . 275

Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories . . . 275

Memory Storage . . . 280 Retaining Information in the Brain . . . 281

Synaptic Changes . . . 283

Retrieval: Getting Information Out . . . 285 Measuring Retention . . . 285

Retrieval Cues . . . 286

Forgetting . . . 289 Forgetting and the Two-Track Mind . . . 290

Encoding Failure . . . 291

Storage Decay . . . 291

Retrieval Failure . . . 292

Memory Construction Errors . . . 294 Misinformation and Imagination Effects . . . 295

Source Amnesia . . . 296

Discerning True and False Memories . . . 297

Children’s Eyewitness Recall . . . 297

Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse? . . . 298

Improving Memory . . . 299

Thinking, Language, and Intelligence . . . 305

CHAPTER9 Thinking . . . 306

Concepts . . . 306

Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles . . . 307

Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments . . . 308

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: The Fear Factor—Why We Fear the Wrong Things . . . 310

Thinking Creatively . . . 314

CLOSE UP: Fostering Your Own Creativity . . . 315

Do Other Species Share Our Cognitive Skills? . . . 316

Language . . . 318 Language Structure . . . 318

Language Development . . . 319

The Brain and Language . . . 322

Do Other Species Have Language? . . . 323

Thinking and Language . . . 326 Language Infl uences Thinking . . . 326

Thinking in Images . . . 328

Intelligence . . . 329 What Is Intelligence? . . . 329

Assessing Intelligence . . . 333

Aging and Intelligence . . . 337

CLOSE UP: Extremes of Intelligence . . . 338

Genetic and Environmental Infl uences on Intelligence . . . 339

Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores . . . 342

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xii CONTENTS

Motivation and Emotion . . . 351

CHAPTER10 Motivational Concepts . . . 352

Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology . . . 352

Drives and Incentives . . . 353

Optimum Arousal . . . 353

A Hierarchy of Motives . . . 355

Hunger . . . 356 The Physiology of Hunger . . . 357

The Psychology of Hunger . . . 359

Obesity and Weight Control . . . 361

CLOSE UP: Waist Management . . . 363

The Need to Belong . . . 364 The Benefi ts of Belonging . . . 364

The Pain of Being Shut Out . . . 365

Connecting and Social Networking . . . 367

CLOSE UP: Managing Your Social Networking . . . 369

Achievement Motivation . . . 370

Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition . . . 371

Historical Emotion Theories . . . 372

Schachter–Singer Two Factor Theory: Arousal + Label = Emotion . . . 373

Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus: Does Cognition Always Precede Emotion? . . . 374

Embodied Emotion . . . 376 The Basic Emotions . . . 376

Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System . . . 377

The Physiology of Emotions . . . 377

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: Lie Detection . . . 379

Expressed and Experienced Emotion . . . 378 Detecting Emotion in Others . . . 379

Gender and Emotion . . . 381

Culture and Emotion . . . 382

The Effects of Facial Expressions . . . 384

Stress, Health, and Human Flourishing . . . 389

CHAPTER11 Stress and Health . . . 390

Stress: Some Basic Concepts . . . 390

Stress and Illness . . . 394

CLOSE UP: Tips for Handling Anger . . . 398

Coping With Stress . . . 401 Personal Control . . . 401

Optimism Versus Pessimism . . . 404

Social Support . . . 405

CLOSE UP: Pets Are Friends, Too . . . 408

Reducing Stress . . . 407 Aerobic Exercise . . . 407

Relaxation and Meditation . . . 409

Faith Communities and Health . . . 410

Happiness . . . 412 Positive Psychology . . . 413

What Affects Our Well-Being? . . . 414

What Predicts Our Happiness Levels? . . . 417

CLOSE UP: Want to Be Happier? . . . 418

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CONTENTS xiii

Personality . . . 423

CHAPTER12 The Psychodynamic Theories . . . 424

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective: Exploring the Unconscious . . . 424

The Neo-Freudian and Psychodynamic Theorists . . . 424

Assessing Unconscious Processes . . . 424

Evaluating Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective and Modern Views of the Unconscious . . . 424

Humanistic Theories . . . 432 Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualizing Person . . . 433

Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Perspective . . . 433

Assessing the Self . . . 434

Evaluating Humanistic Theories . . . 434

Trait Theories . . . 435 Exploring Traits . . . 436

Assessing Traits . . . 437

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: How to Be a “Successful” Astrologer or Palm Reader . . . 438

The Big Five Factors . . . 439

Evaluating Trait Theories . . . 441

Social-Cognitive Theories . . . 443 Reciprocal Infl uences . . . 443

Assessing Behavior in Situations . . . 445

Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories . . . 445

Exploring the Self . . . 446 The Benefi ts of Self-Esteem . . . 447

Self-Serving Bias . . . 448

Culture and the Self . . . 450

Social Psychology . . . 457

CHAPTER13 Social Thinking . . . 458

The Fundamental Attribution Error . . . 458

Attitudes and Actions . . . 460

Social Infl uence . . . 463 Cultural Infl uences . . . 463

Conformity: Complying With Social Pressures . . . 465

Obedience: Following Orders . . . 467

Group Behavior . . . 471

Social Relations . . . 475 Prejudice . . . 476

CLOSE UP: Automatic Prejudice . . . 477

Aggression . . . 481

Attraction . . . 487

CLOSE UP: Online Matchmaking and Speed Dating . . . 488

Altruism . . . 493

Confl ict and Peacemaking . . . 496

Psychological Disorders . . . 505

CHAPTER14 What Is a Psychological Disorder? . . . 506

Understanding Psychological Disorders . . . 506

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xiv CONTENTS

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: ADHD—Normal High Energy or Genuine Disorder? . . . 507

Classifying Disorders—and Labeling People . . . 509

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: Insanity and Responsibility . . . 512

Anxiety Disorders . . . 512 Generalized Anxiety Disorder . . . 513

Panic Disorder . . . 513

Phobias . . . 513

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder . . . 514

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder . . . 515

Understanding Anxiety Disorders . . . 516

Mood Disorders . . . 519 Major Depressive Disorder . . . 520

Bipolar Disorder . . . 520

Understanding Mood Disorders . . . 521

CLOSE UP: Suicide and Self-Injury . . . 524

Schizophrenia . . . 528 Symptoms of Schizophrenia . . . 528

Onset and Development of Schizophrenia . . . 529

Understanding Schizophrenia . . . 530

Other Disorders . . . 534 Dissociative Disorders . . . 534

Eating Disorders . . . 536

Personality Disorders . . . 537

Rates of Psychological Disorders . . . 540

Therapy . . . 545

CHAPTER15 Treating Psychological Disorders . . . 546

The Psychological Therapies . . . 546 Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic

Therapy . . . 547

Humanistic Therapies . . . 548

Behavior Therapies . . . 550

Cognitive Therapies . . . 554

Group and Family Therapies . . . 557

Evaluating Psychotherapies . . . 559 Is Psychotherapy Effective? . . . 560

Which Psychotherapies Work Best? . . . 562

Evaluating Alternative Therapies . . . 563

How Do Psychotherapies Help People? . . . 565

Culture and Values in Psychotherapy . . . 566

CLOSE UP: A Consumer’s Guide to Mental Health Professionals . . . 567

The Biomedical Therapies . . . 568 Drug Therapies . . . 568

Brain Stimulation . . . 571

Psychosurgery . . . 574

Therapeutic Lifestyle Change . . . 574

Preventing Psychological Disorders . . . 576 Resilience . . . 576

Creating Healthy Environments . . . 577

APPENDIX A: Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life . . . A-1

APPENDIX B: Psychology at Work . . . B-1

APPENDIX C: Subfi elds of Psychology . . . C-1

APPENDIX D: Complete Chapter Reviews . . . D-1

APPENDIX E: Answers to Experience the Testing Effect Questions . . . E-1

Glossary . . . G-1

References . . . R-1

Name Index . . . NI-1

Subject Index . . . SI-1

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PREFACE

Throughout its nine editions, my unwavering vision for Exploring Psychology has been to merge rigorous science with a broad human perspective that engages both mind and heart. I aim to offer a state-of-the-art introduction to psychological science that speaks to students’ needs and interests. I aspire to help students understand and appreciate the wonders of their everyday lives. And I seek to convey the inquisitive spirit with which psychologists do psychology.

I am genuinely enthusiastic about psychology and its applicability to our lives. Psychological science has the potential to expand our minds and enlarge our hearts. By studying and applying its tools, ideas, and insights, we can supplement our intuition with critical thinking, restrain our judgmentalism with compas- sion, and replace our illusions with understanding. By the time students complete this guided tour of psychology, they will also, I hope, have a deeper understand- ing of our moods and memories, about the reach of our unconscious, about how we f lourish and struggle, about how we perceive our physical and social worlds, and about how our biology and culture in turn shape us. (See TABLES 1 and 2, next page.)

Believing with Thoreau that “anything living is easily and naturally expressed in popular language,” I seek to communicate psychology’s scholarship with crisp narra- tive and vivid storytelling. “A writer’s job,” says my friend Mary Pipher, “is to tell stories that connect readers to all the people on Earth, to show these people as the complicated human beings they really are, with histories, families, emotions, and legitimate needs.” Writing as a solo author, I hope to tell psychology’s story in a way that is warmly personal as well as rigorously scientific. I love to ref lect on connec- tions between psychology and other realms, such as literature, philosophy, history, sports, religion, politics, and popular culture. And I love to provoke thought, to play with words, and to laugh. For his pioneering 1891 Principles of Psychology, William James sought “humor and pathos.” And so do I.

I am grateful for the privilege of assisting with the teaching of this mind- expanding discipline to so many students, in so many countries, through so many different languages. To be entrusted with discerning and communicating psychol- ogy’s insights is both an exciting honor and a great responsibility.

Creating this book is a team sport. Like so many human achievements, it is the product of a collective intelligence. Woodrow Wilson spoke for me: “I not only use all the brains I have, but all I can borrow.” The thousands of instructors and millions of students across the globe who have taught or studied (or both!) with this book have contributed immensely to its development. Much of this contribu- tion has occurred spontaneously, through correspondence and conversations. For this edition, we also formally involved 1061 researchers and teaching psycholo- gists, and 251 students, in our efforts to gather accurate and up-to-date information about the f ield of psychology and the content, study aids, and supplements needs of instructors and students in the introductory course. We look forward to continuing feedback as we strive, over future editions, to create an ever better book and teach- ing package.

What’s NEW? This ninth edition is the most carefully reworked and extensively updated of all the revisions to date. This new edition features improvements to the organization and presentation, especially to our system of supporting student learning and remembering.

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xvi PREFACE

TABLE 1 Evolutionary Psychology and Behavior Genetics

The evolutionary perspective is covered on the following pages:

TABLE 2 Neuroscience

In addition to the coverage found in Chapter 2, neuroscience can be found on the following pages:

Aggression, pp. 482–483 Aging: physical exercise and the brain, p. 152 Animal language, pp. 316–317 Antisocial personality disorder, pp. 538–539 Arousal, pp. 175–176 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

(ADHD) and the brain, p. 507 Autism, pp. 130–131 Automatic prejudice: amygdala, p. 477 Biofeedback, p. 409 Biopsychosocial approach, pp. 6–7

aggression, p. 487 aging, pp. 152, 157, 291 dementia and Alzheimer’s, p. 284 development, pp. 186–187 dreams, pp. 93–94 drug use, pp. 109–112 emotion, pp. 141, 283, 374–375, 378,

381–382 hypnosis, pp. 99–100 learning, pp. 256–260 pain, pp. 222–223 personality, p. 444 psychological disorders, p. 508 sleep, pp. 83–88 therapeutic lifestyle change, pp. 574–575

Brain development: adolescence, p. 140 experience and, pp. 122–123 infancy and childhood, p. 124 sexual differentiation in utero, p. 169

Brain stimulation therapies, pp. 572–573

Cognitive neuroscience, pp. 4, 78 Drug dependence, pp. 109–111 Emotion and cognition, pp. 371–372 Emotional intelligence and brain damage,

p. 333 Fear learning, p. 518 Fetal alcohol syndrome and brain abnor-

malities, p. 120 Hallucinations: pp. 107–108 Hallucinations and:

near-death experiences, pp. 107–108 schizophrenia, p. 529 sleep, p. 95

Hormones and: abuse, pp. 136–137 appetite, pp. 357–358 development, p. 167 in adolescents, pp. 167, 140–141 of sexual characteristics, pp. 167–168 emotion, pp. 378–379 gender, p. 167 sex, pp. 150–151 sexual behavior, pp. 171–173 stress, pp. 377, 391–393, 394–396, 405 weight control, p. 359

Hunger, p. 357 Insight, pp. 307–308 Intelligence, p. 334

creativity, pp. 314–315 twins, pp. 339–340

Language, pp. 318, 322–323 and deafness, p. 322 and thinking in images, p. 328

Light-exposure therapy: brain scans, p. 564 Meditation, pp. 409–410 Memory:

emotional memories, p. 283 explicit memories, pp. 281–282 implicit memories, pp. 282–283 physical storage of, pp. 280–282 and sleep, pp. 88, 95 and synaptic changes, pp. 283–285

Mirror neurons, pp. 262–263 Neuroscience perspective, defined, p. 7 Neurotransmitters and:

anxiety disorders, pp. 518, 569 biomedical therapy:

depression, pp. 523–525, 569–570 ECT, pp. 571–572 schizophrenia, pp. 530, 568–569

child abuse, p. 137 cognitive-behavioral therapy: obsessive-

compulsive disorder, p. 557 depression, pp. 523–525 drugs, pp. 100, 102 exercise, p. 407 narcolepsy, pp. 92–93 schizophrenia, pp. 530, 532

Observational learning and brain imaging, p. 261

Optimum arousal: brain mechanisms for rewards, pp. 353–355

Orgasm, p. 173 Pain, p. 220

phantom limb pain, p. 222 virtual reality, pp. 223–224

Parallel vs. serial processing, p. 205 Perception:

brain damage and, p. 205 color vision, pp. 206–208 feature detection, p. 204 transduction, p. 192 visual information processing,

pp. 200–202 Perceptual organization, pp. 208–211 Personality and brain-imaging, p. 437 Post-traumatic stress disorder

(PTSD) and the limbic system, pp. 515–516

Psychosurgery: lobotomy, p. 574 Schizophrenia and brain abnormalities,

pp. 530–531, 532 Sensation:

body position and movement, p. 227 deafness, pp. 217–218 hearing, pp. 216–217 sensory adaptation, p. 196 smell, pp. 225–226 taste, pp. 224–225 touch, p. 220 vision, p. 200

Sexual orientation, pp. 180, 182 Sleep:

cognitive development and, p. 96 memory and, p. 88 recuperation during, p. 88

Smell and emotion, p. 226 Unconscious mind, pp. 431–432

Aging, pp. 151–152 Anxiety disorders, p. 518 Biological predispositions:

in learning, pp. 256–260 in operant conditioning, pp. 258–260

Brainstem, p. 47 Consciousness, p. 78 Darwin, Charles, p. 6 Depression and light exposure therapy, p. 564 Emotion, effects of facial expressions and,

pp. 384–385 Emotional expression, pp. 382–383 Evolutionary perspective, defined, p. 7 Exercise, pp. 407–408 Fear, p. 310 Feature detection, p. 204 Hearing, p. 216 Hunger and taste preference, p. 359 Instincts, p. 352 Intelligence, pp. 329–331, 333–334,

343–346 Language, pp. 318–319, 320–322 Love, pp. 154–156 Math and spatial ability, pp. 342–343 Mating preferences, pp. 184–185 Menopause, pp. 150–151 Need to belong, p. 364 Obesity, p. 461

Overconfidence, pp. 311–312 Perceptual adaptation, p. 215 Puberty, onset of, pp. 148–149 Sensation, p. 192 Sensory adaptation, p. 196 Sexual orientation, p. 181 Sexuality, pp. 173, 183–184 Sleep, pp. 84, 88 Smell, pp. 225–226 Taste, pp. 224–225

See also Chapter 2, The Biology of Behavior.

Abuse, intergenerational transmission of, p. 264

Adaptability, p. 53 Aggression, pp. 579–580

intergenerational transmission of, p. 264 Autism, pp. 130–131 Behavior genetics perspective, p. 7 Biological perspective, p. 36 Brain plasticity, p. 58 Continuity and stages, p. 149 Deprivation of attachment, p. 136 Depth perception, p. 210 Development, p. 119 Drives and incentives, p. 353 Drug dependence, p. 110 Drug use, pp. 109–112 Eating disorders, p. 536 Epigenetics, p. 120 Happiness, pp. 412–413 Hunger and taste preference, pp. 359–360 Intelligence:

Down syndrome, pp. 338–339 genetic and environmental influences,

pp. 339–346 Learning, pp. 256–257, 258–259 Motor development, p. 123 Nature–nurture, pp. 5–6

twins, p. 6

Obesity and weight control, pp. 361–362 Parenting styles, p. 138 Perception, pp. 214–215 Personality traits, p. 437–440 Psychological disorders and:

ADHD, p. 507 anxiety disorders, p. 517 biopsychosocial approach, p. 508 depression, p. 523 insanity and responsibility, p. 512 mood disorders, pp. 523–524 personality disorders, pp. 538–539 post-traumatic stress syndrome,

pp. 515–516 schizophrenia, pp. 531–533

Reward deficiency syndrome, p. 52 Romantic love, pp. 154–156 Sexual disorders, pp. 173–174 Sexual orientation, p. 180 Sexuality, p. 173 Sleep patterns, p. 87 Smell, pp. 225–226 Stress, personality, and illness, pp. 397–399

managing stress with exercise, pp. 407–409 Traits, pp. 341-342

See also Chapter 2, The Biology of Behavior.

TTT

Behavior genetics is covered on the following pages:

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NEW Study System Follows Best Practices From Learning and Memory Research The new learning system harnesses the testing effect, which documents the benefits of actively retrieving information through self-testing (FIGURE 1). Thus, each chap- ter now offers 15 to 20 new Retrieve It questions interspersed throughout. Creating these desirable difficulties for students along the way optimizes the testing effect, as does immediate feedback (via inverted answers beneath each question).

In addition, each main section of text begins with numbered questions that establish learning objectives and direct student reading. The Chapter Review section repeats these questions as a further self-testing opportunity (with answers in the Complete Chapter Reviews appendix). The Chapter Review section also offers a page-referenced list of key terms and concepts, and new Experience the Testing Effect questions in multiple formats to promote optimal retention.

FIGURE 1 Testing effect For suggestions of how students may apply the testing effect to their own learning, watch this 5-minute YouTube animation: www.tinyurl.com/HowToRemember

Nearly 1000 New Research Citations My ongoing scrutiny of dozens of scientific periodicals and science news sources, enhanced by commissioned reviews and countless e-mails from instructors and students, enables my integrating our field’s most important, thought-provoking, and student-relevant new discoveries. Part of the pleasure that sustains this work is learning something new every day! (For a complete list of significant changes to the content, see www.worthpub.com/myers.)

Reorganized Chapters In addition to the new study aids and updated coverage, I’ve introduced the following organizational changes:

• Chapter 1 concludes with a new section, “Improve Your Retention—And Your Grades.” This guide will help students replace ineffective and inefficient old habits with new habits that increase retention and success.

• The contents of the previous edition’s Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity chap- ter are now integrated throughout the text, including in Chapters 2, 4, 5, 12, and 13. (See Table 4 on page xxi.)

• Chapter 4, Developing Through the Life Span, has been shortened by moving the Aging and Intelligence coverage to Chapter 9, Thinking, Language, and Intelligence.

• NEW Chapter 5, Gender and Sexuality, includes new and significantly reorganized discussions.

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xviii PREFACE

• Chapter 6, Sensation and Perception, now covers both topics in a more efficient and integrated fashion (rather than covering sensation first, then perception). Coverage of the deaf experience is now in Chapter 9, Thinking, Language, and Intelligence.

• Chapter 7, Learning, now has a separate Biology, Cognition, and Learning section that more fully explores the biological and cognitive constraints on learning.

• Chapter 8, Memory, follows a new format, and more clearly explains how differ- ent brain networks process and retain memories. I worked closely with Janie Wilson (Professor of Psychology at Georgia Southern University and Vice President for Pro- gramming of the Society for the Teaching of Psychology) in this chapter’s revision.

• Chapter 10 now combines Motivation with Emotion. • Chapter 11, Stress, Health, and Human Flourishing, now includes discussion of

positive psychology, well-being, and personal control.

• Chapter 12, Personality, offers improved coverage of modern-day psychodynamic approaches, which are now more clearly distinguished from their historical Freud- ian roots.

• The Social Psychology chapter now follows the Personality chapter. • Chapter 14, Psychological Disorders, now includes coverage of eating disorders,

previously in the Motivation chapter.

Clinical Chapters Were Carefully Reviewed and Signifi cantly Improved With helpful guidance from clinical psychologist colleagues, I have strengthened the clinical perspective, which has improved the Personality, Psychological Disorders,

and Therapy chapters, among others. For example, I cover problem- focused and emotion-focused coping strategies and the relationship of psychotherapy to cancer survival in the Stress, Health, and Human Flourishing chapter, and the Intelligence chapter describes how psychol- ogists use intelligence tests in clinical settings. Material from today’s positive psychology is also woven throughout (see TABLE 3).

In addition, the Personality and Therapy chapters now more clearly distinguish between historical psychoanalysis and modern-day psycho- dynamic theories.

New Time Management Section for Students To help students maximize their reading, studying, and exam prepara- tion efforts, a new student preface offers time management guidance.

Beautiful New Design and Contemporary New Photo Program This new, more open and colorful design, chock full of new photos and illustrations, provides a modern visual context for the book’s up-to- date coverage.

Dedicated Versions of Next-Generation Media This ninth edition is accompanied by the dramatically enhanced Psych- Portal, which adds new features (LearningCurve formative assess- ment activities and Launch Pad carefully crafted prebuilt assignments) while incorporating the full range of Worth’s psychology media products (Video Tool Kit, PsychInvestigator, PsychSim). (For details, see p. xxv.)

TABLE 3 Examples of Positive Psychology

Coverage of positive psychology topics can be found in the following chapters: Topic Chapter Altruism/Compassion 4, 9, 12, 13, 15 Coping 11 Courage 13 Creativity 8, 12, 13 Emotional intelligence 9, 13 Empathy 4, 7, 11, 13, 15 Flow 10 Gratitude 10, 11, 13 Happiness/Life Satisfaction 4, 10, 11 Humility 13 Humor 11, 13 Justice 13 Leadership 10, 12, 13, App B Love 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 Morality 4 Optimism 11, 12 Personal control 11 Resilience 4, 11, 13, 15 Self-discipline 4, 10, 12 Self-efficacy 11, 12 Self-esteem 10, 12 Spirituality 11, 13 Toughness (grit) 9, 10 Wisdom 3, 4, 9, 12, 13

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PREFACE xix

What Continues? Eight Guiding Principles Despite all the exciting changes, this new edition retains its predecessors’ voice, as well as much of the content and organization. It also retains the goals—the guiding principles—that have animated the previous eight editions:

Facilitating the Learning Experience 1. To teach critical thinking By presenting research as intellectual detective

work, I illustrate an inquiring, analytical mindset. Whether students are studying development, cognition, or social behavior, they will become involved in, and see the rewards of, critical reasoning. Moreover, they will discover how an empirical approach can help them evaluate competing ideas and claims for highly publicized phenomena—ranging from ESP and alternative therapies, to astrology and repressed and recovered memories.

2. To integrate principles and applications Throughout—by means of anec- dotes, case histories, and the posing of hypothetical situations—I relate the fi ndings of basic research to their applications and implications. Where psychology can illu- minate pressing human issues—be they racism and sexism, health and happiness, or violence and war—I have not hesitated to shine its light.

3. To reinforce learning at every step Everyday examples and rhetorical ques- tions encourage students to process the material actively. Concepts presented earlier are frequently applied, and reinforced, in later chapters. For instance, in Chapter 3, students learn that much of our information processing occurs outside of our con- scious awareness. Ensuing chapters drive home this concept. Numbered Learning Objective Questions at the beginning of each main section, Retrieve It self-tests throughout each chapter, a marginal glossary, and Chapter Review key terms lists and self-tests help students learn and retain important concepts and terminology.

Demonstrating the Science of Psychology 4. To exemplify the process of inquiry I strive to show students not just the out-

come of research, but how the research process works. Throughout, the book tries to excite the reader’s curiosity. It invites readers to imagine themselves as partici- pants in classic experiments. Several chapters introduce research stories as mysteries that progressively unravel as one clue after another falls into place.

5. To be as up-to-date as possible Few things dampen students’ interest as quickly as the sense that they are reading stale news. While retaining psychology’s classic studies and concepts, I also present the discipline’s most important recent developments. More than 900 references in this edition are dated 2009–2012. Like- wise, the new photos and everyday examples are drawn from today’s world.

6. To put facts in the service of concepts My intention is not to fi ll students’ intellectual fi le drawers with facts, but to reveal psychology’s major concepts—to teach students how to think, and to offer psychological ideas worth thinking about. In each chapter, I place emphasis on those concepts I hope students will carry with them long after they complete the course. Always, I try to follow Albert Einstein’s purported dictum that “everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler.” Learning Objective Questions and Retrieve It questions throughout each chapter help students focus on the most important concepts.

Promoting Big Ideas and Broadened Horizons 7. To enhance comprehension by providing continuity Many chapters

have a signifi cant issue or theme that links subtopics, forming a thread that ties the chapter together. The Learning chapter conveys the idea that bold

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xx PREFACE

thinkers can serve as intellectual pioneers. The Thinking, Language, and Intelli- gence chapter raises the issue of human rationality and irrationality. The Psycho- logical Disorders chapter conveys empathy for, and understanding of, troubled lives. Other threads, such as cognitive neuroscience, dual processing, and cultural and gender diversity, weave throughout the whole book, and students hear a consistent voice.

8. To convey respect for human unity and diversity Throughout the book, readers will see evidence of our human kinship—our shared biological heritage, our common mechanisms of seeing and learning, hungering and feeling, loving and hating. They will also better understand the dimensions of our diversity—our individual diversity in development and aptitudes, temperament and personality, and disorder and health; and our cultural diversity in attitudes and expressive styles, child-rearing and care for the elderly, and life priorities.

Continually Improving Cultural and Gender Diversity Coverage This edition presents an even more thoroughly cross-cultural perspective on psychology (TABLE 4)—ref lected in research findings and text and photo exam- ples. New Chapter 5, Gender and Sexuality, allows a separate-chapter focus on the psychology of women and men, though these topics are also thoroughly integrated throughout the text (see TABLE 5). In addition, I am working to offer a world-based psychology for our worldwide student readership. Thus, I continually search the world for research findings and text and photo examples, conscious that readers may be in Melbourne, Sheffield, Vancouver, or Nairobi. North American and European examples come easily, given that I reside in the United States, maintain contact with friends and colleagues in Canada, subscribe to several European periodicals, and live periodically in the U.K. This edition, for example, offers many dozens of Canadian, British, and Australian and New Zealand examples. We are all citizens of a shrink- ing world, thanks to increased migration and the growing global economy. Thus, American students, too, benefit from information and examples that international- ize their world-consciousness. And if psychology seeks to explain human behavior (not just American or Canadian or Australian behavior), the broader the scope of studies presented, the more accurate is our picture of this world’s people. My aim is to expose all students to the world beyond their own culture, and I continue to welcome input and suggestions from all readers. Discussion of the relevance of cultural and gender diversity begins on the first page of the first chapter and contin- ues throughout the text.

Strong Critical Thinking Coverage I aim to introduce students to critical thinking throughout the book. Revised Learning Objective Questions at the beginning of each main section, and Retrieve It questions throughout each chapter, encourage critical reading to glean an understanding of important concepts. This ninth edition also includes the following opportunities for students to learn or practice their critical think- ing skills.

• Chapter 1, Thinking Critically With Psychological Science, introduces students to psychology’s research methods, emphasizing the fallacies of our everyday intuition and common sense and, thus, the need for psychological science. Critical thinking is introduced as a key term in this chapter (p. 15). Appendix A, Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life, encourages students to “focus on thinking smarter by applying simple statistical principles to everyday reasoning.”

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PREFACE xxi

TABLE 4 Culture and Multicultural Experience

Culture and multicultural experience is covered on the following pages:

TABLE 5 The Psychology of Men and Women

The psychology of men and women is covered on the following pages:

Absolute thresholds, pp. 193–194 ADHD, p. 607 Adulthood: physical changes, pp. 150–151 Aggression, pp. 481–483

father absence, p. 484 pornography, pp. 484–485 rape, pp. 484, 485

Alcohol: and addiction, p. 103 and sexual aggression, pp. 102–103 use, pp. 102–103

Altruism, pp. 493–494 Antisocial personality disorder,

pp. 538–539 Attraction, pp. 487–491 Autism, p. 140 Behavioral effects of gender, pp. 26–27 Biological predispositions in color

perceptions, p. 257 Biological sex/gender, pp. 167–168 Bipolar disorder, pp. 520–521 Body image, pp. 536–537 Color vision, pp. 206–208 Conformity/obedience, p. 467–470 Dating, p. 488 Depression, pp. 520, 521–522

learned helplessness, p. 526 Dream content, pp. 93–94 Drug use:

biological influences, p. 110

psychological/social-cultural influences, pp. 110–112

Eating disorders, pp. 536–537 Emotion-detecting ability, pp. 379–381,

381–382 Empty nest, p. 156 Father care, p. 135 Father presence, p. 177 Freud’s views:

evaluating, pp. 430–432 identification/gender identity,

pp. 426–427 Oedipus/Electra complexes, p. 426 penis envy, p. 428

Fundamental attribution error, pp. 458–459

Gender: and anxiety, p. 513 and child-rearing, pp. 170–171 development, p. 164 “missing women,” p. 477 prejudice, pp. 476–478 roles, pp. 169–170 similarities/differences, pp. 164–166

Gendered brain, pp. 167, 175, 182–183 Generic pronoun “he,” p. 327 Grief, pp. 157–158 Group polarization, p. 473 Happiness, pp. 417–418 Hearing loss, pp. 217–218, 322

Hormones and: aggression, p. 482 sexual behavior, pp. 171–172 sexual development, pp. 140–141, 167 testosterone-replacement therapy, p. 172

Intelligence: bias, p. 345 stereotype threat, pp. 345–346

Leadership: transformational, p. B12 Losing weight, p. 363 Love, pp. 154–156, 491–493 Marriage, p. 155, 405 Maturation, pp. 140–141 Menarche, p. 140 Menopause, p. 151 Midlife crisis, p. 154 Obesity:

genetic factors, pp. 361–362 health risks, p. 361

Observational learning: sexually violent media, p. 265 TV’s influence, pp. 263–264

Pain sensitivity, p. 221 Pornography, pp. 175–176 Prejudice, p. 306 Psychological disorders, rates of, p. 540 PTSD: development of, pp. 515–516 Rape, p. 481 Religiosity and life expectancy, pp. 410, 412 REM sleep, arousal in, p. 86

Romantic love, pp. 491–493 Savant syndrome, p. 331 Schizophrenia, p. 528 Self-injury, p. 525 Sense of smell, pp. 225–226 Sexual attraction, pp. 184–185 Sexual dysfunctions, pp. 173–174 Sexual fantasies, p. 176 Sexual orientation, pp. 178–173 Sexuality, pp. 175–176 Sexuality:

adolescent, pp. 176–178 evolutionary explanation, pp. 183–184 external stimuli, pp. 175–176 imagined stimuli, p. 176

Sexualization of girls, p. 177 Stereotyping, p. 198 Stress and:

AIDS, p. 396 depression, pp. 399–400 health, and sexual abuse, p. 407 heart disease, pp. 397–398 immune system, pp. 394–396 response to, pp. 392–394

Suicide, pp. 524–525 Teratogens: alcohol consumption, p. 120 Women in psychology’s history, p. 3

See also Chapter 5, Gender and Sexuality, and Chapter 13, Social Psychology.

Aggression, p. 484 and video games, pp. 265, 485–486

Aging population, pp. 151–152 AIDS, p. 396 Anger, pp. 398–399 Animal research ethics, pp. 27–28 Attraction: love and marriage,

pp. 492–493 Attractiveness, pp. 184–185, 490 Attribution: political effects of, p. 459 Behavioral effects of culture, pp. 26–27,

67–68 Body ideal, pp. 536–537 Body image, pp. 536–537 Categorization, p. 306 Conformity, pp. 465, 467 Corporal punishment practices, pp. 251–252 Cultural norms, pp. 164, 464 Culture:

context effects, pp. 198–199 definition, p. 463 variation over time, p. 464

Culture and the self, pp. 450–451 Culture shock, p. 391 Deaf culture, pp. 58, 61, 320, 321–322 Development:

adolescence, p. 140 attachment, p. 137 child-rearing, pp. 138–139 cognitive development, p. 129 moral development, pp. 142–143 parenting styles, pp. 138–139 social development, pp. 132–133

Drug use, p. 112 Emotion:

emotion-detecting ability, pp. 379–381 Emotion: expressing, pp. 381–382,

383–385 Enemy perceptions, p. 498 Fear, p. 310–311 Flow, p. B1 Fundamental attribution error, p. 458 Gender:

cultural norms, pp. 164, 169 roles, p. 169–170 social power, p. 165

Grief, expressing, pp. 157–158 Happiness, pp. 416–418 Hindsight bias, pp. 11–12 History of psychology, pp. 2–5 Homosexuality, views on, p. 178 Human diversity/kinship, pp. 26–27,

463–464 Identity: forming social, pp. 144–145 Individualism/collectivism, p. 451 Intelligence, pp. 329–330, 343, 344

bias, p. 345 Down syndrome, p. 338 nutrition and, p. 344

Language, pp. 319–321, 326–327, 464 critical periods, pp. 321–322 monolingual/bilingual, p. 327 universal grammar, p. 321

Leaving the nest, pp. 148–149 Life satisfaction, p. 415 Life span and well-being, pp. 156–157

Loop systems for hearing assistance, p. B14

Management styles, pp. B11–B13 Marriage, p. 155 Meditation, pp. 409–410 Memory, encoding, pp. 276–277 Menopause, p. 151 Mental illness rate, pp. 540–541 Motivating achievement, pp. B7–B8 Motivation: hierarchy of needs, p. 355 Need to belong, pp. 364–365 Neurotransmitters: curare, pp. 39–41 Obesity, pp. 361–362, 362–363 Observational learning: television and

aggression, p. 264 Organ donation, pp. 312–313 Pace of life, pp. 19, 464 Pain: perception of, pp. 220–225 Parent and peer relationships,

pp. 145–146 Participative management, pp. B11–B12 Peacemaking:

conciliation, p. 500 contact, p. 499 cooperation, pp. 499–500

Peer influence, pp. 145–147 Power of individuals, pp. 474–475 Prejudice, pp. 24, 29, 476–481

“missing women,” p. 477 Prejudice prototypes, p. 306 Psychological disorders:

cultural norms, p. 506 dissociative personality disorder, p. 534

eating disorders, pp. 508, 536–537 schizophrenia, pp. 508, 531–532 suicide, pp. 524–525 susto, p. 508 taijin-kyofusho, p. 508

Psychotherapy: culture and values in, pp. 566–567 EMDR training, p. 563

Puberty and adult independence, pp. 148–149

Self-esteem, p. 417 Self-serving bias, pp. 448–449 Sex drive, p. 184 Sexual orientation, pp. 178–183 Similarities, pp. 70–72 Sleep patterns, pp. 87–88 Social clock, p. 154 Social loafing, pp. 471–472 Social networking, pp. 367–368 Social-cultural perspective, pp. 7–11 Spirituality: Israeli kibbutz communities,

pp. 410–411 Stress:

adjusting to a new culture, p. 391 health consequences, p. 401 racism and, p. 392

Taste preferences, pp. 359–360 Teen sexuality, pp. 176–178 Testing bias, p. 345 Weight control, p. 360

See also Chapter 13, Social Psychology.

TT

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xxii PREFACE

• “Thinking Critically About . . .” boxes are found throughout the book, modeling for students a critical approach to some key issues in psychology. For example, see the updated box “Thinking Critically About: The Fear Factor—Why We Fear the Wrong Things” (pages 310–311).

• Detective-style stories throughout the narrative get students thinking critically about psychology’s key research questions. For example, in Chapter 14, I present the causes of schizophrenia piece by piece, showing students how researchers put the puzzle together.

• “Apply this” and “Think about it” style discussions keep students active in their study of each chapter. In Chapter 13, for example, students take the perspective of participants in a Solomon Asch conformity experiment, and later in one of Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments. I’ve also asked students to join the fun by taking part in activities they can try along the way. For example, in Chapter 6, they try out a quick sensory adaptation activity. In Chapter 10, they try matching expres- sions to faces and test the effects of different facial expressions on themselves.

• Critical examinations of pop psychology spark interest and provide important les- sons in thinking critically about everyday topics. For example, Chapter 6 includes a close examination of ESP, and Chapter 8 addresses the controversial topic of repression of painful memories.

See TABLE 6 for a complete list of this text’s coverage of critical thinking topics and Thinking Critically About boxes.

TABLE 6 Critical Thinking and Research Emphasis

Critical thinking coverage, and in-depth stories of psychology’s scientific research process, can be found on the following pages:

Thinking Critically About . . . boxes: Addiction, p. 101 The Evolutionary Perspective on

Human Sexuality, pp. 183–186 Can Subliminal Messages Control Our

Behavior?, p. 195 ESP—Perception Without Sensation?,

pp. 230–232 Does Viewing Media Violence Trigger

Violent Behavior?, p. 265 The Fear Factor—Why We Fear the

Wrong Things, pp. 310–311 Lie Detection, p. 379 How to Be a “Successful” Astrologer

or Palm Reader, pp. 438–439 ADHD—Normal High Energy or

Genuine Disorder?, p. 507 Insanity and Responsibility, p. 512

Critical Examinations of Pop Psychology: The need for psychological science,

p. 10 Perceiving order in random events,

pp. 12–13 Do we use only 10 percent of our

brains?, p. 56 Can hypnosis enhance recall? Coerce

action? Be therapeutic? Alleviate pain?, pp. 97–98

Has the concept of “addiction” been stretched too far?, p. 101

Near-death experiences, p. 107 Critiquing the evolutionary perspec-

tive, pp. 185–186 How much credit or blame do parents

deserve?, p. 147 Sensory restriction, pp. 97–100 Is there extrasensory perception?,

pp. 230–232 Do other species exhibit language?,

pp. 323–325 How valid is the Rorschach test?,

pp. 429–430 Is repression a myth?, p. 431 Is Freud credible?, pp. 430–432 Is psychotherapy effective?,

pp. 560–563 Evaluating alternative therapies,

pp. 563–565 Do video games teach or release vio-

lence?, pp. 485–486

Thinking Critically With Psychological Science:

The limits of intuition and common sense, pp. 10–13

The scientific attitude, pp. 13–14

Critical thinking introduced as a key term, p. 15

The scientific method, pp. 15–17 Correlation and causation, pp. 21–22 Exploring cause and effect,

pp. 22–23 Random assignment, pp. 22–23 Independent and dependent variables,

pp. 23–24 Statistical reasoning, pp. A1–A4 Describing data, pp. A1–A4 Making inferences, pp. A7–A8

Scientific Detective Stories: Is breast milk better than formula?,

pp. 22–23 Our divided brains, pp. 59–61 Twin and adoption studies,

pp. 63–66 Why do we sleep?, pp. 88–89 Why do we dream?, pp. 94–96 Is hypnosis an extension of normal

consciousness or an altered state?, pp. 98–100

How a child’s mind develops, pp. 124–129

What determines sexual orientation?, pp. 178–183

Parallel processing, pp. 205–206 How do we see in color?, pp. 206–208 How are memories constructed?,

pp. 274–280 How do we store memories in our

brains?, pp. 280–282 Do other species exhibit language?,

pp. 323–325 Aging and intelligence, pp. 337–338 Why do we feel hunger?, pp. 357–359 Why—and in whom—does stress

contribute to heart disease?, pp. 397–399

How and why is social support linked with health?, pp. 405–407

The pursuit of happiness: Who is happy, and why?, pp. 412–419

Self-esteem versus self-serving bias, pp. 448–450

Why do people fail to help in emergen- cies?, pp. 494–495

What causes mood disorders?, pp. 521–527

Do prenatal viral infections increase risk of schizophrenia?, pp. 531–532

Is psychotherapy effective?, pp. 560–561

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PREFACE xxiii

APA Principles and New MCAT 2015 Guidelines APA Principles for Quality Undergraduate Education and APA Learning Goals and Outcomes In February 2011, the American Psychological Association (APA) approved the new Principles for Quality Undergraduate Education in Psychology. These broad-based prin- ciples and their associated recommendations were designed to “produce psychologi- cally literate citizens who apply the principles of psychological science at work and at home.” (See www.apa.org/education/undergrad/principles.aspx.)

APA’s more specif ic 2002 Learning Goals and Outcomes (from their Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major, updated in 2006) were designed to gauge progress in students graduating with psychology majors. (See www.apa.org/ed/ precollege/about/psymajor-guidelines.pdf ) Many psychology departments have since used these goals and outcomes to help establish their own benchmarks for departmental assessment purposes. APA’s 2009 Assessment CyberGuide for Learn- ing Goals and Outcomes (www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/assess.aspx) may assist your efforts.

Some instructors are eager to know whether a given text for the introductory course helps students get a good start at achieving these APA benchmarks. See www.worthpublishers.com/myers for detailed guides to how well Exploring Psychol- ogy, ninth edition, corresponds to both the 2011 APA Principles and the 2006 APA Learning Goals and Outcomes.

MCAT Will Include Psychology Starting in 2015 Beginning in 2015, the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) is devoting 25 percent of its questions to the “Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior,” with most of those questions coming from the psychological science taught in introductory psychology courses. From 1977 to 2014, the MCAT focused on biology, chemistry, and physics. Hereafter, reports the new Preview Guide for MCAT 2015, the exam will also recognize “the importance of socio-cultural and behavioral determinants of health and health outcomes.” The exam’s new psychol- ogy section covers the breadth of topics in this text. See, for example, TABLE 7, which outlines the precise correlation between the topics in this text’s Sensation and Perception chapter and the corresponding portion of the MCAT exam. For a complete pairing of the new MCAT psychology topics with this book’s contents, see www.worthpublishers.com/myers.

TABLE 7 Sample MCAT Correlation With Exploring Psychology, Ninth Edition

MCAT 2015: Categories in Sensation and Perception Myers, Exploring Psychology, Ninth Edition, Correlations

Content Category 6e: Sensing the environment Section Title or Topic Page Number

Sensory Processing Sensation and Perception 191–235

Sensation Sensation and Perception 193–195

Thresholds Thresholds 193–195

Signal detection theory Signal detection theory 193

Sensory adaptation Sensory adaptation 196–197

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http://www.apa.org/ed/
http://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/assess.aspx
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xxiv PREFACE

Sample MCAT Correlation With Exploring Psychology, Ninth Edition, continued

MCAT 2015: Categories in Sensation and Perception Myers, Exploring Psychology, Ninth Edition, Correlations

Content Category 6e: Sensing the environment Section Title or Topic Page Number

Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system.

Transduction 192

Sensory pathways Visual Information Processing 202–206

The Ear 216–217

Understanding Pain 221

Taste 224–225

Smell 225–226

Body Position and Movement 227

Types of sensory receptors The Eye 201–204

The Ear 216–219

Understanding Pain 221–222

Taste 224–225

Smell 225–226

Body Position and Movement 227

The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions.

Functions of the Cortex 54–57

Information processing in the cerebral cortex The Cerebral Cortex 53–57

Lateralization of cortical functions The Cerebral Cortex 53–56

Our Divided Brain 59–61

Right-Left Differences in the Intact Brain 61–62

Vision Vision 200–215

Structure and function of the eye The Eye 200–202

Visual processing Visual Information Processing 202–206

Visual pathways in the brain Figure 6.16 Pathway from the eyes to the visual cortex

203

Parallel processing Parallel processing 205–206

Feature detection Feature detection 204–205

Hearing Hearing 216–219

Auditory processing Transduction of sound 216–217

Auditory pathways in the brain Transduction of sound 216–217

Perceiving loudness and pitch Perceiving Loudness 218

Perceiving Pitch 219

Locating sounds Locating Sounds 219

Sensory reception by hair cells Photo of hair cells; detailed drawing of inner ear, including hair cells

216, 217

The Ear 216

Other Senses The Other Senses 220–227

Somatosensation

Sensory systems in the skin Sensory cortex 54–55

Touch 220

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PREFACE xxv

Next-Generation Multimedia Exploring Psychology, ninth edition, boasts impressive multimedia options. For more information about any of these choices, visit Worth Publishers’ online catalog at www.worthpublishers.com.

PsychPortal With LearningCurve Quizzing The ninth edition’s dramatically enhanced PsychPortal adds new features (Learn- ingCurve formative assessment activities and Launch Pad carefully crafted prebuilt assignments) while incorporating the full range of Worth’s psychology media options (Video Tool Kit, PsychInvestigator, PsychSim).

Based on the latest f indings from learning and memory research, LearningCurve combines adaptive question selection, personalized study plans, immediate and valuable feedback, and state-of-the-art question analysis reports. LearningCurve’s game-like nature keeps students engaged while helping them learn and remember key concepts.

Sample MCAT Correlation With Exploring Psychology, Ninth Edition, continued

MCAT 2015: Categories in Sensation and Perception Myers, Exploring Psychology, Ninth Edition, Correlations

Content Category 6e: Sensing the environment Section Title or Topic Page Number

Tactile pathways in the brain Sensory cortex 54–55

Figure 6.38 The pain circuit 221

Types of pain Pain 221–222

Factors that infl uence pain Biological Infl uences 221–222

Psychological Infl uences 222

Social-Cultural Infl uences 222–223

Taste Taste 224–225

Taste buds/chemoreceptors that detect specifi c chemicals in the environment

Taste receptors and their functions 224–225

Gustatory pathways in the brain Processing taste in the brain 226

Smell Smell 225–227

Olfactory cells/chemoreceptors that detect specifi c chemicals in the environment

Olfactory receptor cells, and processing olfaction in the brain

225–226

Pheromones Smell of sex-related hormones 181, 182

Olfactory pathways in the brain Processing olfaction in the brain 225–226

Role of smell in perception of taste Sensory Interaction 227–229

Perception Sensation and Perception 191–235

Bottom-up/Top-down processing Bottom-up and top-down processing 192, 221

Perceptual organization (i.e., depth, form, motion, constancy) Visual Organization: Form Perception, Depth Perception (including Relative Motion), Perceptual Constancy

208–214

Processing motion 205

Gestalt principles Gestalt principles 208–209

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http://www.worthpublishers.com

 

xxvi PREFACE

Launch Pad offers a set of prebuilt assignments, carefully crafted by a group of instructional designers and instructors with an abundance of teaching experience as well as deep familiarity with Worth content. Each Launch Pad unit contains videos, activities, and formative assessment pieces to build student understanding for each topic, culminating with a randomized summative quiz to hold students accountable for the unit. Assign units in just a few clicks, and find scores in your gradebook upon submission. Launch Pad appeals not only to instructors who have been interested in adding an online component to their course but haven’t been able to invest the time, but also to experienced online instructors curious to see how other colleagues might scaffold a series of online activities. Customize units as you wish, adding and drop- ping content to fit your course. (See FIGURE 2.)

Faculty Support and Student Resources • New! Faculty Lounge—http://psych.facultylounge.worthpublishers.com—(see

FIGURE 3) is an online place to find and share favorite teaching ideas and materials, including videos, animations, images, PowerPoint® slides and lectures, news stories, articles, web links, and lecture activities. Includes publisher- as well as peer-provided resources—all faculty-reviewed for accuracy and quality.

• Instructor’s Media Guide for Introductory Psychology • Enhanced Course Management Solutions (including course cartridges) • eBook in various available formats, with embedded Concepts in Action • Book Companion Site

FIGURE 2 Launch Pad in PsychPortal

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PREFACE xxvii

Video and Presentation • New! Worth Introductory Psychology Videos, produced in conjunction with

Scientific American and Nature, is a breakthrough collection of NEW modular, tutorial videos on core psychology topics. This set includes animations, interviews with top scientists, and carefully selected archival footage and is available on flash drive, or as part of the new Worth Video Anthology for Introductory Psychology.

• New! The Worth Video Anthology for Introductory Psychology is a com- plete collection, all in one place, of our video clips from the Video Tool Kit, the Digital Media Archive, and the third edition of the Scientific American Frontiers Teaching Modules, as well as from the new Worth Introductory Psychology Videos co-produced with Scientific American and Nature. Available on DVD or flash drive, the set is accompanied by its own Faculty Guide.

• New! Interactive Presentation Slides for Introductory Psychology is an extraordinary series of PowerPoint® lectures . This is a dynamic, yet easy-to-use new way to engage students during classroom presentations of core psychology topics. This collection provides opportunities for discussion and interaction, and includes an unprecedented number of embedded video clips and animations (including activities from our ActivePsych series).

Assessment • New! LearningCurve • Printed Test Banks • Diploma Computerized Test Banks • Online Quizzing • i•clicker Radio Frequency Classroom Response System

FIGURE 3 Sample from our Faculty Lounge site (psych.facultylounge.worthpublishers.com)

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xxviii PREFACE

Print • Instructor’s Resources • Lecture Guides • Study Guide • Pursuing Human Strengths: A Positive Psychology Guide • Critical Thinking Companion, Second Edition • Psychology and the Real World: Essays Illustrating Fundamental Contributions to Society.

This ©2011 project of the FABBS Foundation brought together a virtual “Who’s Who” of contemporary psychological scientists to describe—in clear, captivating ways—the research they have passionately pursued and what it means to the “real world.” Each contribution is an original essay written for this project.

From Scientifi c American • Improving the Mind & Brain: A Scientific American Special Issue • Scientific American Reader to Accompany Myers

In Appreciation If it is true that “whoever walks with the wise becomes wise” then I am wiser for all the wisdom and advice received from my colleagues. Aided by thousands of consul- tants and reviewers over the last two decades, this has become a better, more accurate book than one author alone (this author, at least) could write. As my editors and I keep reminding ourselves, all of us together are smarter than any one of us.

My indebtedness continues to each of the teacher-scholars whose inf luence I acknowledged in the eight previous editions, to the innumerable researchers who have been so willing to share their time and talent to help me accurately report their research, and to the 1155 instructors and students who took the time to offer feed- back over the phone, in a survey, or at one of our face-to-face focus groups. I also appreciated having detailed consultation on the Memory chapter from Janie Wilson (Georgia Southern University, and Vice President for Programming of the Society of the Teaching of Psychology).

Nathan DeWall (University of Kentucky) offered valuable input as a special contributor for this edition. He assisted with the revision of the Need to Belong section in Chapter 10, Motivation and Emotion; the Personal Control discussion in Chapter 11, Stress, Health, and Human Flourishing; and the Aggression discussion in Chapter 13, Social Psychology.

Amy Himsel (El Camino College), a gifted teacher with a keen ability to connect with students, guided creation of the self-test study aids found throughout this new edition.

My gratitude extends to the colleagues who contributed criticism, corrections, and creative ideas related to the content, pedagogy, and format of this new edition and its teaching package. For their expertise and encouragement, and the gifts of their time to the teaching of psychology, I thank the reviewers and consultants listed here.

Jennifer Adler, Borough of Manhattan Community College, CUNY

David Alfano, Community College of Rhode Island

Leslie Cramblet Alvarez, Adams State College

Willow Aureala, Hawaii Community College

Rosiana Azman, Kapiolani Community College

Debra Bacon, Bristol Community College— Fall River Campus

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PREFACE xxix

Robert Baker, Sandhills Community College

Meeta Banerjee, Michigan State University

Carol Batt, Seattle Central Community College

Kiersten Baughman, University of Oklahoma

Alexander Beaujean, Baylor University

Karen Bekker, Bergen Community College

Anjan Bhattacharyya, New Jersey City University

Beth Bigler, Pellissippi State Tech Community College

Melissa Birkett, Northern Arizona University

Tim Boffeli, Clarke University

Gregory Bolich, Belmont Abbey College

Pamela Bradley, Sandhills Community College

Jennifer Breneiser, Valdosta State University

Gayle Brosnan-Watters, Chandler Gilbert Community College

Cheryl Carmichael, Brooklyn College, CUNY

Ana Carmona, Austin Peay State University

Natalie Ceballos, Texas State University—San Marcos

Kelly Charlton, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

Barbara Chutroo, Borough of Manhattan Community College, CUNY

Pamela Costa, Tacoma Community College

Baine Craft, Seattle Pacifi c University

Christy Cummings, Community College of Denver

Drew Curtis, Texas Woman’s University

Robert Dale, Butler University

Deborah Dalke, Defi ance College

Robert Daniel, Bridgewater State College

Mary Fran Davis, Austin Peay State University

Sarah D’Elia, George Mason University

Meliksah Demir, Northern Arizona University

Jean Desto, Anna Maria College

Wendy Domjan, University of Texas—Austin

Evelyn Doody, College of Southern Nevada

Kathryn Dumper, Bainbridge College

Robert Egbert, Walla Walla University

Julie Ehrhardt, Bristol Community College—New Bedford

Daniella Errett, Penn Highlands Community College

Kim Felsenthal, Berkeley College

Christopher Ferguson, Texas A&M International University

Bill Flack, Bucknell University

Jonathan Forbey, Ball State University

Claire Ford, Bridgewater State University

William Fry, Youngstown State University

Crystal Gabert-Quillen, Kent State University

Dennis Galvan, Gallaudet University

Karen Gee-Atwood, Foothill College

Inna Ghajoyan, California State University—Northridge

Jennifer Gibson, Tarleton State University

Amanda Gingerich, Butler University

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xxx PREFACE

Wind Goodfriend, Buena Vista University

Dan Grangaard, Austin Community College

Melinda Green, Cornell College

Kelly Hagan, Bluegrass Community & Technical College

Diane Hall, Bay Path College

Pamela Hall, Barry University

Stephen Hampe, Utica College

Rhiannon Hart, Rochester Institute of Technology

Wendy Hart, Arizona State University

Myra Harville, Holmes Community College

Matthew Hayes, Winthrop University

Carmon Hicks, Ivy Tech Community College

Kathleen Hipp, Daniel Webster College

Brian Hock, Austin Peay State University

Lori Hokerson, American River College

Mia Holland, Bridgewater State College

Gary Homann, Lincoln University of Missouri

Mildred Huffman, Jefferson College of Health Sciences

Steven Isonio, Golden West College

Lora Jacobi, Stephen F. Austin State University

Jenny Jellison, Waynesburg College

Barry Johnson, Davidson County Community College

Peter Karl Jonason, University of West Florida

Diana Joy, Community College of Denver

Stephen Joy, Albertus Magnus College

Tracy Juliao, University of Michigan—Dearborn Campus

Deana Julka, University of Portland

Bethany Jurs, University of Wisconsin—Stout Campus

Diane Kappen, Johnson County Community College

Katrina Kardiasmenos, Bowie State University

Chithra KarunaKaran, Borough of Manhattan Community College, CUNY

Brent King, Adams State College

Teresa King, Bridgewater State College

Annette Kluck, Auburn University

Franz Klutschkowski, North Central Texas College

Dana Kuehn, Florida State College at Jacksonville

Carol LaLiberte, Asnuntuck Community College

Donna Landon-Jimenez, Caldwell College, Mount Saint Mary Academy

Cynthia Lausberg, Pittsburg University

Melissa Lea, Millsaps University

Fred Leavitt, California State University—Hayward

Heather Lench, Texas A&M University

Nicolette Lopez, University of Texas at Arlington

Ken Luke, Tyler Junior College

Melanie Maggard, Mount San Jacinto College

Toby Marx, Union County College

Jim Matiya, Florida Gulf Coast University

Simone Matlock-Phillips, Bay Path College

Elizabeth Matys-Rahbar, Greenwich High School

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PREFACE xxxi

Tammy McClain, West Liberty University

Daniel McConnell, University of Central Florida

Kyla McKay-Dewald, Bristol Community College— Fall River Campus

Thomas Meriweather, Virginia Military Institute

Nadia Monosov, California State University—Northridge

James Moore, Marshall University

Robin Musselman, Lehigh Carbon Community College

Michelle Mychajlowskyj, Quinnipiac University

Robert Newby, Tarleton State University

Arthur Olguin, Santa Barbara City College

Don Osborn, Bellarmine College

Neophytos Papaneophytou, Borough of Manhattan Community College, CUNY

Thomas Peterson, Grand View University

Zehra Peynircioglu, American University

Kellie Pierson, Northern Kentucky University

Gary Popoli, Stevenson University

Jack Powell, University of Hartford

Patrick Progar, Caldwell College

Michael Rader, Johnson County Community College

Kimberly Renk, University of Central Florida

Shannon Scott Rich, Texas Woman’s University

Cynthia Rickert, Ivy Tech Community College

Hugh H. Riley, Baylor University

Kristin Ritchey, Ball State University

Clarence Rohrbaugh, Fairmont State College James Rollins, Austin Peay State University Jane Russell, Austin Peay State University Valerie Scott, Indiana University Southeast Neda Senehi, California State University—Northridge Tim Shearon, The College of Idaho LaTishia Smith, Ivy Tech Community College Rita Smith-Wade-El, Millersville University Kristin Sorensen, Defi ance College Gary Springer, Los Angeles College International Jonathan D. Springer, Kean University Kimberly Stark-Wroblewski, University of Central Missouri Meri Stiles, Lyndon State College Deborah Stipp, Ivy Tech Community College Dawn Strongin, California State University—Stanislaus Donna Stuber-McEwen, Friends University Robert Tanner, Albuquerque Technical Vocational Institute Yonca Toker, Georgia Institute of Technology Stephen Truhon, Austin Peay State University Lynda Vannice, Umpqua Community College Nancy Voorhees, Ivy Tech Community College Benjamin Wallace, Cleveland State University Thomas Westcott, University of West Florida Keilah Worth, St. Catherine University Frederic Wynn, County College of Morris

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xxxii PREFACE

At Worth Publishers a host of people played key roles in creating this ninth edition. Although the information gathering is never ending, the formal planning began

as the author-publisher team gathered for a two-day retreat in June 2010. This happy and creative gathering included John Brink, Thomas Ludwig, Richard Straub, and me from the author team, along with my assistants Kathryn Brownson and Sara Neevel. We were joined by Worth Publishers executives Tom Scotty, Elizabeth Widdicombe, Catherine Woods, Craig Bleyer, and Mark Resmer; editors Chris- tine Brune, Kevin Feyen, Nancy Fleming, Tracey Kuehn, Betty Probert, and Trish Morgan; artistic director Babs Reingold; sales and marketing colleagues Tom Kling, Carlise Stembridge, John Britch, Lindsay Johnson, Cindi Weiss, Kari Ewalt, Mike Howard, and Matt Ours; and special guests Amy Himsel (El Camino Community College), Jennifer Peluso (Florida Atlantic University), Charlotte vanOyen Witvliet (Hope College), and Jennifer Zwolinski (University of San Diego). The input and brainstorming during this meeting of minds gave birth, among other things, to the study aids in this edition, the carefully revised clinical coverage, the separate gender and sexuality chapter, and the refreshing new design.

Christine Brune, chief editor for the last eight editions, is a wonder worker. She offers just the right mix of encouragement, gentle admonition, attention to detail, and passion for excellence. An author could not ask for more.

Development editor Nancy Fleming is one of those rare editors who is gifted both at “thinking big” about a chapter—and with a kindred spirit to my own—while also applying her sensitive, graceful, line-by-line touches.

Publisher Kevin Feyen is a valued team leader, thanks to his dedication, creativity, and sensitivity. Catherine Woods (Senior Vice President, Editorial and Production) helped construct and execute the plan for this text and its supplements. Catherine was also a trusted sounding board as we faced a seemingly unending series of discrete decisions along the way. Elizabeth Block and Nadina Persaud coordinated produc- tion of the huge media and print supplements package for this edition. Betty Probert efficiently edited and produced the print supplements and, in the process, also helped fine-tune the whole book. Nadina also provided invaluable support in commission- ing and organizing the multitude of reviews, mailing information to professors, and handling numerous other daily tasks related to the book’s development and produc- tion. Lee Ann McKevitt did a splendid job of laying out each page. Bianca Moscatelli and Donna Ranieri worked together to locate the myriad photos.

Tracey Kuehn, Director of Print and Digital Development, displayed tire- less tenacity, commitment, and impressive organization in leading Worth’s gifted artistic production team and coordinating editorial input throughout the produc- tion process. Production Manager Sarah Segal masterfully kept the book to its tight schedule, and Art Director Babs Reingold skillfully directed creation of the beauti- ful new design and art program. Production Manager Stacey Alexander, along with Supplements Production Editor Edgar Bonilla, did their usual excellent work of producing the many supplements.

To achieve our goal of supporting the teaching of psychology, this teaching pack- age not only must be authored, reviewed, edited, and produced, but also made avail- able to teachers of psychology. For their exceptional success in doing that, our author team is grateful to Worth Publishers’ professional sales and marketing team. We are especially grateful to Executive Marketing Manager Kate Nurre, Marketing Manager Lindsay Johnson, and National Psychology and Economics Consultant Tom Kling both for their tireless efforts to inform our teaching colleagues of our efforts to assist their teaching, and for the joy of working with them.

At Hope College, the supporting team members for this edition included Kathryn Brownson, who researched countless bits of information and proofed hundreds of pages. Kathryn has become a knowledgeable and sensitive adviser on many matters, and Sara Neevel has become our high-tech manuscript developer, par excellence.

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PREFACE xxxiii

Again, I gratefully acknowledge the inf luence and editing assistance of my writing coach, poet Jack Ridl, whose inf luence resides in the voice you will be hearing in the pages that follow. He, more than anyone, cultivated my delight in dancing with the language, and taught me to approach writing as a craft that shades into art.

After hearing countless dozens of people say that this book’s supplements have taken their teaching to a new level, I ref lect on how fortunate I am to be a part of a team in which everyone has produced on-time work marked by the highest profes- sional standards. For their remarkable talents, their long-term dedication, and their friendship, I thank John Brink, Thomas Ludwig, and Richard Straub, and I welcome Jennifer Peluso (Florida Atlantic University) to our teaching package team. I am grateful for Jenny’s excellent work—building on the many years of creative effort contributed by the late Martin Bolt.

Finally, my gratitude extends to the many students and instructors who have writ- ten to offer suggestions, or just an encouraging word. It is for them, and those about to begin their study of psychology, that I have done my best to introduce the field I love.

The day this book went to press was the day I started gathering information and ideas for the tenth edition. Your input will again inf luence how this book continues to evolve. So, please, do share your thoughts.

Hope College Holland, Michigan 49422-9000 USA davidmyers.org

www.tinyurl.com/MeetDavidMyers

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TIME MANAGEMENT: OR, HOW TO BE A GREAT STUDENT AND

STILL HAVE A LIFE

xxxiv

We all face challenges in our schedules. Some of you may be taking midnight courses, others squeezing in an online course in between jobs or after putting chil- dren to bed at night. Some of you may be veterans using military benefits to jump- start a new life.

How can you balance all of your life’s demands and be successful? Time manage- ment. Manage the time you have so that you can find the time you need.

In this section, I will outline a simple, four-step process for improving the way you make use of your time.

1. Keep a time-use diary to understand how you are using your time. You may be surprised at how much time you’re wasting.

2. Design a new schedule for using your time more effectively.

3. Make the most of your study time so that your new schedule will work for you.

4. If necessary, refi ne your new schedule, based on what you’ve learned.

How Are You Using Your Time Now? Although everyone gets 24 hours in the day and seven days in the week, we fill those hours and days with different obligations and interests. If you are like most people, you probably use your time wisely in some ways, and not so wisely in others. Answering the questions in TABLE 1 can help you find trouble spots—and hopefully more time for the things that matter most to you.

The next thing you need to know is how you actually spend your time. To find out, record your activities in a time-use diary for one week. Be realistic. Take notes on

—Richard O. Straub University of Michigan, Dearborn

© N

ic k

Pa rk

asHow Are You Using Your Time Now?

Design a Better Schedule Plan the Term

Plan Your Week

CLOSE-UP: More Tips for Effective Scheduling

Make Every Minute of Your Study Time Count Take Useful Class Notes

Create a Study Space That Helps You Learn

Set Specifi c, Realistic Daily Goals

Use SQ3R to Help You Master This Text

Don’t Forget About Rewards!

Do You Need to Revise Your New Schedule? Are You Doing Well in Some Courses But Not in Others?

Have You Received a Poor Grade on a Test?

Are You Trying to Study Regularly for the First Time and Feeling Overwhelmed?

Motivated students: This course at Bunker Hill Community College meets at the increasingly popular time of midnight to 2:00 A.M., allowing shift workers, busy parents, and others to make it to class.

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how much time you spend attending class, studying, working, commut- ing, meeting personal and family needs, f ixing and eating meals, social- izing (don’t forget texting, Facebooking, and gaming), exercising, and anything else that occupies your time, including life’s small practical tasks, which can take up plenty of your 24/7. As you record your activi- ties, take notes on how you are feeling at various times of the day. When does your energy slump, and when do you feel most energetic?

Design a Better Schedule Take a good look at your time-use diary. Where do you think you may be wasting time? Do you spend a lot of time commuting, for example? If so, could you use that time more productively? If you take public transportation, commuting is a great time to read and test yourself for review.

Did you remember to include time for meals, personal care, work sched- ules, family commitments, and other fixed activities?

How much time do you sleep? In the battle to meet all of life’s daily commitments and interests, we tend to treat sleep as optional. Do your best to manage your life so that you can get enough sleep to feel rested. You will feel better and be healthier, and you will also do better academically and in relationships with your family and friends. (You will read more about this in Chapter 3.)

Are you dedicating enough time for focused study? Take a last look at your notes to see if any other patterns pop out. Now it’s time to create a new and more efficient schedule.

Plan the Term Before you draw up your new schedule, think ahead. Buy a portable calendar that covers the entire school term, with a writing space for each day. Using the course outlines provided by your instructors, enter the dates of all exams, term-paper deadlines, and other important assign- ments. Also be sure to enter your own long-range personal plans (work and family commitments, etc.). Carry this calendar with you each day. Keep it up-to-date, refer to it often, and change it as needed. Through this process, you will develop a regular schedule that will help you achieve success.

Plan Your Week To pass those exams, meet those deadlines, and keep up with your life outside of class, you will need to convert your long-term goals into a daily schedule. Be realistic—you will be living with this routine for the entire school term. Here are some more things to add to that portable calendar.

1. Enter your class times, work hours, and any other fi xed obligations. Be thorough. Allow plenty of time for such things as commuting, meals, and laundry.

2. Set up a study schedule for each course. Remember what you learned about yourself in the study habits survey (Table 1) and your time-use diary. Close-Up: More Tips for Effective Scheduling (next page) offers some detailed guidance drawn from psy- chology’s research.

3. After you have budgeted time for studying, fi ll in slots for other obligations, exer- cise, fun, and relaxation.

TIME MANAGEMENT xxxv

Table 1 Study Habits Survey

Answer the following questions, writing Yes or No for each line.

1. Do you usually set up a schedule to budget your time for studying, work, recreation, and other activities?

2. Do you often put off studying until time pres- sures force you to cram?

3. Do other students seem to study less than you do, but get better grades?

4. Do you usually spend hours at a time study- ing one subject, rather than dividing that time among several subjects?

5. Do you often have trouble remember- ing what you have just read in a textbook?

6. Before reading a chapter in a textbook, do you skim through it and read the section headings?

7. Do you try to predict test questions from your class notes and reading?

8. Do you usually try to summarize in your own words what you have just finished reading?

9. Do you find it difficult to concentrate for very long when you study?

10. Do you often feel that you studied the wrong material for a test?

Thousands of students have participated in similar surveys. Students who are fully realizing their aca- demic potential usually respond as follows: (1) yes, (2) no, (3) no, (4) no, (5) no, (6) yes, (7) yes, (8) yes, (9) no, (10) no.

Do your responses fit that pattern? If not, you could benefit from improving your time management and study habits.

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xxxvi TIME MANAGEMENT

Make Every Minute of Your Study Time Count How do you study from a textbook? Many students simply read and reread in a passive manner. As a result, they remember the wrong things—the catchy stories but not the main points that show up later in test questions. To make things worse, many students take poor notes during class. Here are some tips that will help you get the most from your class and your text.

Take Useful Class Notes Good notes will boost your understanding and retention. Are yours thorough? Do they form a sensible outline of each lecture? If not, you may need to make some changes.

Keep Each Course’s Notes Separate and Organized Keeping all your notes for a course in one location will allow you to f lip back and forth easily to find answers to questions. Three options are (1) separate note- books for each course, (2) clearly marked sections in a shared ring binder, or (3) carefully organized folders if you opt to take notes electronically. For the print options, removable pages will allow you to add new information and weed out past mistakes. Choosing notebook pages with lots of space, or using mark-up options in electronic f iles, will allow you to add comments when you review and revise your notes after class.

Use an Outline Format Use roman numerals for major points, letters for supporting arguments, and so on. (See FIGURE 1 for a sample.) In some courses, taking notes will be easy, but some instructors may be less organized, and you will have to work harder to form your outline.

More Tips for Effective Scheduling

class. Increase your study time slowly by setting weekly goals that will gradually bring you up to the desired level.

Create a schedule that makes sense. Tailor your schedule to meet the demands of each course. For the course that emphasizes lecture notes, plan a daily review of your notes soon after each class. If you are evalu- ated for class participation (for example, in a language course), allow time for a review just before the class meets. Schedule study time for your most difficult (or least motivating) courses during hours when you are the most alert and distractions are fewest.

Schedule open study time. Life can be unpredictable. Emergencies and new obligations can throw off your schedule. Or you may simply need some extra time for a project or for review in one of your courses. Try to allow for some flexibility in your schedule each week.

Following these guidelines will help you find a schedule that works for you!

There are a few other things you will want to keep in mind when you set up your schedule.

Spaced study is more effective than massed study. If you need 3 hours to study one subject, for example, it’s best to divide that into shorter periods spaced over several days.

Alternate subjects, but avoid interference. Alternating the subjects you study in any given session will keep you fresh and will, surprisingly, increase your ability to remember what you’re learning in each different area. Studying similar topics back-to-back, however, such as two differ- ent foreign languages, could lead to interference in your learning. (You will hear more about this in Chapter 8.)

Determine the amount of study time you need to do well in each course. The time you need depends upon the difficulty of your courses and the effectiveness of your study methods. Ideally, you would spend at least 1 to 2 hours studying for each hour spent in

M Ti f

CLOSE UP

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TIME MANAGEMENT xxxvii

Clean Up Your Notes After Class Try to reorganize your notes soon after class. Expand or clarify your comments and clean up any hard-to-read scribbles while the material is fresh in your mind. Write impor- tant questions in the margin, or by using an electronic markup feature, next to notes that answer them. (For example: “What are the sleep stages?”) This will help you when you review your notes before a test.

Create a Study Space That Helps You Learn It’s easier to study effectively if your work area is well designed.

Organize Your Space Work at a desk or table, not in your bed or a comfy chair that will tempt you to nap.

Minimize Distractions Turn the TV off, turn off your phone, and close Facebook and other distracting windows on your computer. If you must listen to music to mask outside noise, play soft instrumentals, not vocal selections that will draw your mind to the lyrics.

Ask Others to Honor Your Quiet Time Tell roommates, family, and friends about your new schedule. Try to find a study place where you are least likely to be disturbed.

Set Specifi c, Realistic Daily Goals The simple note “7–8 P.M.: Study Psychology” is too broad to be useful. Instead, break your studying into manageable tasks. For example, you will want to subdivide large reading assignments. If you aren’t used to studying for long periods, start with relatively short periods of concentrated study, with breaks in between. In this text, for example, you might decide to read one major section before each break. Limit your breaks to 5 or 10 minutes to stretch or move around a bit.

Your attention span is a good indicator of whether you are pacing yourself successfully. At this early stage, it’s important to remember that you’re in training. If your attention begins to wander, get up immediately and take a short break. It is better to study effec- tively for 15 minutes and then take a break than to fritter away 45 minutes out of your study hour. As your endurance develops, you can increase the length of study periods.

Use SQ3R to Help You Master This Text David Myers organized this text by using a system called SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review). Using SQ3R can help you to understand what you read, and to retain that information longer.

Sleep (Chapter 3) I. Biological Rhythms

A. Circadian Rhythm (circa-about; diem-day)—24-hour cycle.

B. FOUR Sleep Stages, cycle through every 90 minutes all

night! Aserinsky discovered—his son—REM sleep (dreams,

rapid eye movement, muscles paralyzed but brain super

active). EEG measurements showed sleep stages.

1. Ups and downs throughout day/night.

Dip in afternoon (siesta time).

2. Melatonin—hormone that makes us sleepy. Produced by pineal

gland in brain. Bright light shuts down production of melatonin.

(Dim the lights at night to get sleepy.)

When is my daily peak in circadian arousal? Study

hardest subject then!

1. NREM-1 (non-Rapid Eye Movement sleep; brief, images like

hallucinations; hypnagogic jerks)

2. NREM-2 (harder to waken, sleep spindles)

3. NREM-3 (DEEP sleep—hard to wake up! Long slow waves on EEG;

bedwetting, night terrors, sleepwalking occurs here; asleep but

not dead—can still hear, smell, etc. Will wake up for baby.)

4. REM Sleep (Dreams…)

FIGURE 1

Sample class notes in outline

form Here is a sample from a student’s notes taken in outline form from a lecture on sleep.

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Applying SQ3R may feel at first as though it’s taking more time and effort to “read” a chapter, but with practice, these steps will become automatic.

Survey Before you read a chapter, survey its key parts. Scan the chapter outline. Note that main sections have numbered Learning Objective Questions to help you focus. Pay attention to headings, which indicate important subtopics, and to words set in bold type.

Surveying gives you the big picture of a chapter’s content and organization. Understanding the chapter’s logical sections will help you break your work into manageable pieces in your study sessions.

Question As you survey, don’t limit yourself to the numbered Learning Objective Questions that appear throughout the chapter. Jotting down additional questions of your own will cause you to look at the material in a new way. (You might, for example, scan this section’s headings and ask “What does ‘SQ3R’ mean?”) Information becomes easier to remember when you make it personally meaningful. Trying to answer your questions while reading will keep you in an active learning mode.

Read As you read, keep your questions in mind and actively search for the answers. If you come to material that seems to answer an important question that you haven’t jotted down, stop and write down that new question.

Be sure to read everything. Don’t skip photo or art captions, graphs, boxes, tables, or quotes. An idea that seems vague when you read about it may become clear when you see it in a graph or table. Keep in mind that instructors sometimes base their test questions on figures and tables.

Retrieve When you have found the answer to one of your questions, close your eyes and mentally recite the question and its answer. Then write the answer next to the question in your own words. Trying to explain something in your own words will help you f igure out where there are gaps in your understanding. These kinds of opportunities to practice retrieving develop the skills you will need when you are taking exams. If you study without ever putting your book and notes aside, you may develop false confidence about what you know. With the material available, you may be able to recognize the correct answer to your questions. But will you be able to recall it later, when you take an exam without having your mental props in sight?

Test your understanding as often as you can. Testing yourself is part of successful learning, because the act of testing forces your brain to work at remembering, thus establishing the memory more permanently (so you can find it later for the exam!). Use the self-testing opportunities throughout each chapter, including the periodic Retrieve It items. Also take advantage of the self-testing that is available on the free book companion website (www.worthpublishers.com/myers).

Review After working your way through the chapter, read over your questions and your written answers. Take an extra few minutes to create a brief written summary cover- ing all of your questions and answers. At the end of the chapter, you should take advantage of three important opportunities for self-testing and review—a list of the chapter’s Learning Objective Questions for you to try answering before checking

You will hear more about SQ3R in Chapter 1.

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Appendix D (Complete Chapter Reviews), a list of the chapter’s key terms for you to try to define before checking the referenced page, and a final self-test that covers all of the key chapter concepts (with answers in Appendix E).

Don’t Forget About Rewards! If you have trouble studying regularly, giving yourself a reward may help. What kind of reward works best? That depends on what you enjoy. You might start by making a list of 5 or 10 things that put a smile on your face. Spending time with a loved one, taking a walk or going for a bike ride, relaxing with a magazine or novel, or watching a favorite show can provide immediate rewards for achieving short-term study goals.

To motivate yourself when you’re having trouble sticking to your schedule, allow yourself an immediate reward for completing a specific task. If running makes you smile, change your shoes, grab a friend, and head out the door! You deserve a reward for a job well done.

Do You Need to Revise Your New Schedule? What if you’ve lived with your schedule for a few weeks, but you aren’t making progress toward your academic and personal goals? What if your studying hasn’t paid off in better grades? Don’t despair and abandon your program, but do take a little time to figure out what’s gone wrong.

Are You Doing Well in Some Courses But Not in Others? Perhaps you need to shift your priorities a bit. You may need to allow more study time for Chemistry, for example, and less time for some other course.