Write summary of chapter 5″ What counts as communication Data?

1- You have to write summary of chapter 5″ What counts as communication Data?” in the text book ” Merrigan, G. & Huston, C. L. (2009). Communication research methods. Oxford University Press: Oxford, England. 2nd edition.” 
2- This is example on how the summary should look:

Chapter 3: Three Paradigms of Knowing

Overview: This chapter is about the three methodological ways of knowing about communication: discovery, interpretation, and Criticism. The ways of knowing are called paradigms.

Methodological Ways of Knowing

• Knowing by Discovery
o Implies accepting four fundamental assumptions:
• The belief that things or objects exist in reality separate from our perceptions of them
• The belief that this reality is discoverable whether we are talking about the physical world or social interaction
• The belief that knowledge is testable through logical (rational) and empirical (observation) methods
• The belief that rigorous standards for testing observations will result in shared system of evaluating observations and conclusions
o The standards we use for evaluating our observations form the basis of discovering what we know and has precise (ensuring accuracy), systematic (clear procedures), and repetitive (to ensure variable findings) observations as a standard
o Conclusions allow application of processes to generalize (group based on common properties) or discriminate (sort based on differences)

• Knowing by Interpretation
o Accepts four fundamental assumptions
• There is more than one reality that can be known
• The knower’s perceptions and values affect what is seen because the knower cannot be separated from the known
• Since there is more than one reality, there can be multiple, equally legitimate, interpretations
• The process of knowing is one of description (knowing the whole context through broad use of data sources) and not of categorization
o From the interpretation perspective, it is not important to determine which interpretations are more accurate but to reflect the full range of sensible interpretations

• Knowing by Criticism
o Those who seek to know through the process of criticism believe not only in multiple realities but that these realities are culturally and historically situated
o Everything we know is shaped by our social, political, economic, ethnic, gender, sexual orientation, and ability values
o The goal of bringing awareness of the reality that society constructs for each of us is to bring about social change (ex. Maternity leave and the disadvantage for women returning to work)

Philosophical Perspectives of the Three Paradigms

• Discovery Paradigm Perspective
o The first paradigm chronologically
o Rationalism and Empiricism gave process to the three emphases of the discovery paradigm (precision, systematic inquiry, and repetition for verification purposes)
• Rationalism stressed on reliance of mind for discoverable logic of objective reality
• Empiricism emphasized the way to objective reality was through observing and explaining sensory information
o Logical positivism and behaviorism was later developments of empiricism 
• Logical positivism believes precision was better served as a goal if related events were identified rather than caused events
• Behaviorism sought to discover causal links between external factors and an individual’s response
o Researchers from the discovery paradigm perspective adopted a post positivism which has five principles
• Falsification as knowledge about what is probable through testable means
• Naturalism as the natural world comprised of both the physical world of objects and the social world of interactions
• Realism as reality existing independently from perceptions of reality
• Transformation models in terms of how direct observations can lead to acceptance of theoretical suppositions that can only be indirectly observed
• Emergent objectivity as shared standards of evaluating observations that can minimize and transcend researcher’s subjective interpretations
o The philosophical perspectives of modernism and structuralism are also focused on a discoverable reality separate in some sense from the knower or perceiver
• Modernism elevated science to the pursuit of a shared and objective truth and belief in progress and of movement towards truth
• Structuralism identified the discoverable reality in the patterns of relationships between objects, events, or people rather than in the truthfulness of the objects themselves

• Interpretive Paradigm Perspective
o Also associated with a number of philosophical perspectives
• Hermeneutics: study of interpretive understanding and meaning
• Emphasized understanding or Verstehen
• Phenomenologists believed that interpretation of experience was only possible by understanding the perspective of the participants engaged in interacting
• Symbolic Interactionism was to understand how people construct and interpret the meaning of their principles
• Constructivism believed that there were multiple realities that are socially constructed
• Naturalism was a professed adherence to studying people in their everyday lives as these are played out in their natural settings
o Typical research studies include ethnographies, historical case studies, biographies, oral histories, dramatism, and narrative analysis

• Critical Paradigm Perspective
o The paradigm has its origins in the philosophies of critical theory, semiotics, late structuralism, post structuralism, post modernism, post colonialism, and deconstruction
• Critical theory was developed as a response to Kant’s rationalism. The purpose is to liberate individuals who have become alienated through oppression in modern society by increasing their social awareness of the ideological structures of power and domination
• Semiotics is sometimes identified as the origin of structuralism. It is the study of signs (in language, cultural rules, unconscious, etc.) and their social significance
• Late structuralism perspective says that the central significance of signs cannot be anything but ideological and are used primarily to convey status apart from any utilitarian function they might serve
• Post Structuralism argues that the search for a foundational structure of language and society should be abandoned
• Post modernism represented a complete restructuring of authority compared to times where the church and government had full power
• Post colonialism includes the idea that the Western countries of the “first world” culturally and racially oppress peoples of the “third world”

Patterns of Religious Affiliation

M1 Discussion on Patterns of Religious Affiliation

President Barack Obama places his hand over his heart during a swearing in of active duty service members at a naturalization ceremony in the Rose Garden of the White House in Washington, April 23, 2010.
(AP Photo/J. David Ake)

U.S. Vice President Joseph Biden listens to Tzipi Livni, not seen, Israel’s parliamentary opposition leader and chair of the Kadima Party, during their meeting in Jerusalem, March 9, 2010.
(AP Photo/Jim Hollander, Pool)

Before we can begin to analyze the relationships between politics and religion in the United States, we must first explore what we mean by “religious affiliation,” and also have a foundational understanding of the existing patterns in the United States.

Since this is our first discussion, please be mindful of some ground rules. First and foremost, come to these discussions with an open mind, as we are objectively analyzing the role and relationships of religion and politics, which are both deeply personal. Second, be careful to ground your statements and assumptions in fact, data and research. Third, avoid statement that could be interpreted as value judgments and could be offensive to others’ beliefs. Finally, if you’re not sure, just don’t say it.

The Pew Research Center studies religion and public life in the United States. This center is a leading source of research on this topic, and it is recommended that you become familiar with the resources offered.

Visit the Religious Landscape Study and peruse the information. You will note that the headline for the report is, “The Christian share of the U.S. population is declining, while the number of U.S. adults who do not identify with any organized religion is growing.” As you are looking through the data, note your observations about the following:

Were you surprised about the patterns of affiliation?
What trends did you notice about gender, geography, age or other factors?
What factors do you think account for the decline in the Christian share of the U.S. population?
NOTE: Post an initial response to the question(s) above, then reply to at least two different peers over the course of the module. Remember, in order for class discussions to be meaningful, you must participate regularly and consistently.Readings:

M1 Overview & Article Links
Text book: Ch 1 & 2 Religon and politics in US Kenneth D. Wald Allison Calhoun-Brown seveth edtion
M1 Content Guides:
Religion & the Political Landscape and Course Overview
The Secularization Debate
Quotes on Religion from Political Figures
ARTICLES:
Social Change and Religion in America: Thinking Beyond Secularization
The Secularization Thesis
News: CNN Belief Blog
Please use above text book for reference and other sources you find.

Background:

M1 Overview & Article Links
Conceptualizing Religion and Politics in America

Sen. Edward Kennedy and Cardinal John Krol pose for photographers outside the Cardinal’s home April 4, 1980 in Philadelphia. Kennedy made a courtesy visit to Krol during a campaign swing through Pennsylvania. (AP Photo/Puskar)
This module establishes a framework for studying the relationship between religion and politics by examining the pluralistic, current religious landscape in the United States and the political dimensions. We examine the what, who, why and how of religion in politics, and explore the major players, the salient issues, and the theories that explain religion in the context of the modern world. You will be encouraged to reflect on the subtle and explicit ways that religion influences political life, and the various aspects of that influence, including public opinion, political theory, political process, and current issue politics.

Module Objectives
By the end of this module you will be able to:

Discuss the role of religion in individual and public life from the perspectives of secularization and modernization theories.
Identify legitimate sources of religious trend data, and analyze patterns of religious affiliation in the United States.
Assess the impact of secularization on modern religious character and behavior.
Identify hallmarks of the scope and depth of religious influences in social and political life.
Describe the religious influences within the historical context of the Founding.
Learning Activities
Required Readings:
Text: Wald and Calhoun:
Chapter 1: A Secular Society?
Chapter 2: Religion in the American Context
M1 Content Guides:
Religion and the Political Landscape and Course Overview
The Secularization Debate
Chapter 1 from Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide by Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart
Articles
Harper, L. & Lebeau, B. (n.d.) Social change and Religion in America: Thinking Beyond Secularization.
Horton, M.S. (2013). The Secularization ThesisSecularizing Religion (22)5, p. 26-41
News
CNN Belief Blog
M1 Discussions:
Icebreaker Discussion
Patterns of Religious Affiliation
M1 Assignment
Timeline of Religion & Politics
Due Dates
Due dates are listed in the Course Schedule.

M1 #1: Religion & the Political Landscape and Course Overview

The American flag flies behind a statue of the Biblical figure Joseph downtown Dothan, Ala., Aug. 18, 2008. (AP Photo/Dave Martin)

President Bush and first lady Laura Bush flank Pope Benedict XVI as he waves to the crowd from the balcony of the White House in Washington, April 16, 2008, during an arrival ceremony. (AP Photo/Pablo Martinez Monsivais)

Israeli soldiers welcome Jewish immigrants from North America upon their arrival at Ben Gurion International airport, Tel Aviv, Israel Sept. 4, 2007. (AP Photo/Gil Cohen Magen, Pool)

Tibetan spiritual leader Dalai Lama laughs while delivering his speech to Tibetan students in Bangalore, India, Wednesday, Dec. 27, 2006. (AP Photo/Aijaz Rahi)
This course will examine the complicated relationship between politics and religion in the United States from historical and a contemporary perspectives. Religion and politics are everywhere. Wherever you look, in everything you read or any issue you debate, people are engaging overt or subtle tenors that tie back to religion.

Despite the concept of “separation” of Church and State, religion has become what many would call a “driving force” in American politics. As evidence of religion’s force in politics, we can look to recent and current political life – namely, the issues of same sex marriage, stem cell research, abortion, and mobilization of voters in elections, over the last several decades. The moral and personal foundations of positions on these issues are rooted in religious ideology. American politics is dominated by Christian influence; however, as we will explore in this course, there are many other religious ideologies that permeate the issue debates.

The aim of this course is to give you an appreciation for the politics of religion in the United States and to help you develop the fluency to interpret the dynamics of religion as it interplays with public policy, electoral politics, and even foreign policy. Thus, the first task in this module and in this course will be to build a framework within which we can understand the role of religion in individual and public life, and then analyze the role of religion in American’s lives.

This course consists of seven modules, designed to walk you through the key tenets of developing an understanding of religion and politics in the United States.

Module 1 is an introduction to the study of politics and religion. This module will provide an overview and a framework for the course. You will consider the historical theories of religion in society (such as that of Marx), as well as explore the basic patterns of religious affiliation in the Unites States. An important part of Module 1 is exploring what is commonly referred to as the “Secularization Debate.” This is essentially a debate, begun by early thinkers such as Marx, Durkheim, Weber and others, which postulates that religion will lose its cultural, social, and political importance over time. This would happen for a variety of reasons, including the rise of science and rationality, the decentralization and societies, and the diffusion of knowledge. But, has it happened? As we explore the debate in Module 1 and in this class, we will see that the quantitative evidence of religious decline isn’t quite what these theorists have predicted.

In Module 2, we will look specifically at historical perspectives. What role did religion play in the Founding? How did the Founding Fathers think of religion and what role did they intend for religion to have in governance? Module 3 will turn our attention to action. In Modules 1 and 2, we explored the historical frameworks for religion and politics, but now we fast forward to the late 1990s and 2000s. What we see and observe in electoral and issue politics suggests that religion is a formidable force. How does this happen?

In Module 3, we will explore how voters are mobilized through religious and political channels. Module 4 we will continue to explore the topics of Module 3 and how religion is manifested in policymaking, public opinion, and political processes. In addition, we will examine how religious politics in the United States frames and impacts attitudes, actions, and positions regarding foreign policy. For example, we will specifically look at how religious politics in the United States impacts U.S. policy toward ISIS in the Middle East.

In Module 5, we will make an in-depth study of what is perhaps the most intriguing example of religious mobilization in the United States – that of the “Religious Right.” We will examine the Religious Right as a case study, and mainly look at the strategies and tactics that the Religious Right has used over time in order to mobilize voters. Module 6 will provide an overview of how other groups in the United States have mobilized for action. Those other groups include Jews, Catholics, Muslims and other minority social groups, such as gays and women, where the key issues have been intertwined with religious dogma.

Finally, in Module 7, we will reflect carefully on what should be the proper role of religion in politics.
M1 #2: The Secularization Debate

Karl Marx, date unknown.
(AP Photo/Kurt Strumpf)

Austrian born psychoanalyst, Sigmund Freud, September 09, 1939. (AP-PHOTO)
Interestingly, many thinkers of the 19th and 20thCenturies thought that religion would either disappear or become trivial in human life. This “secularization thesis” was espoused by Marx, Freud, Weber and Durkheim especially – they viewed secularization not only as a theory, but as a naturally occurring historical process as the world becomes more and more modernized. This thinking, essentially states that as societies modernize, religion will diminish.

In addition to your scheduled readings, also read Chapter 1 from Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide by Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, Cambridge University Press, 2004. This reading will give you a foundational background on the thinking behind the secularization debate.

But, not everyone agrees with the secularization these. And, as we look to political events and trends over the years, it doesn’t seem that American society has become more secular.Religion appears to be alive and strong in America.

The Pew Research Center regularly conducts research on religion in political life. According to the most recent research, the Christian share of the U.S. population is declining, while the number of U.S. adults who do not identify with any organized religion is growing.

The following table depicts the changes that are occurring:

See the full report, published May 15, 2015 “America’s Changing Landscape.”

Discuss and analyze the theory you selected for your topic in Unit 7 and discuss how your data analysis supports the assumptions and theoretical framework and extends the knowledge about this topic.

Two Assignments attached. Please separate files with sending back

Assignment #1 –

  • Supporting Your Quantitative Analyses

Based on your analyses thus far, you should be comfortable with the data and the findings related to your dataset. Find a theory that will help explain your findings. Use at least one peer-reviewed academic article to support your theory selection and to explain the findings from your data analysis.

  • A good place to look for these articles is the Capella Library. Refer back to the theories and journals listed in Unit 1’s Theory Selection assignment to assist in selecting a relevant theory for your project data analysis. Your discussion post should conform to APA 6th edition guidelines.
    • American Behavioral Scientist.
  • American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
  • American Journal of Public Health.
  • American Journal of Sociology.
  • American Review of Public Administration.
  • Annals of Family Medicine.
  • Child Development.
  • Criminal Justice.
  • Criminology and Public Policy.
  • Decision Sciences.
  • Ethnicity and Health.
  • Information Systems Journal.
  • International Journal of Nursing Studies.
  • Journal of Advanced Nursing.
  • Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management.
  • Journal of Interpersonal Violence.
  • Journal of Marriage and the Family.
  • Journal of Management.
  • Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
  • Journal of Research on Adolescence.
  • Justice Quarterly.
  • Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly.
  • Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.
  • Psychology, Public Policy, and Law.
  • Qualitative Health Research.
  • Quality of Life Research.
  • Social Work.
  • Social Work Research.
  • Strategic Management Journal.
  • Violence and Victims.
  • Research Philosophy, Theory, and Quantitative Analysis

Assignment # 2 Now that you have analyzed the dataset using descriptive statistics, correlation, means analysis, and regression analysis, you should be familiar with the data and what it means to the larger body of knowledge in your topic. For this discussion, complete the following:

  • Present your research philosophy using all four assumptions (ontological, axiological, epistemological, and methodological).
  • Discuss and analyze the theory you selected for your topic in Unit 7 and discuss how your data analysis supports the assumptions and theoretical framework and extends the knowledge about this topic.
  • Select at least one additional peer-reviewed article on the topic to support your perspective.
  • Your discussion should conform to APA 6th edition guidelines.

Consider what technological advancement (besides computers) have been MOST impactful (or influential) in the following components of Criminal Justice. These may not have a singular correct answer, but there are certainly answers that cannot easily be defended.

Terminology is CRITICAL in any profession. When one does not have a factually and technically correct command of those terms that are common to the field in which one makes a living, it is embarrassing and causes those with whom you interact to question your credibility.

We will start out easily though. Obviously the use of computers in CJ is about the advancement of technology in the field that studies crime, criminals, victims, and the laws that govern.

Consider what technological advancement (besides computers) have been MOST impactful (or influential) in the following components of Criminal Justice. These may not have a singular correct answer, but there are certainly answers that cannot easily be defended.

Now for these items below, you could make a fairly compelling case with logic and some facts. BUT in subsequent units, that standard will rise. More on that later.

EXAMPLE: As I suspect none of you are criminologists, let me address the last item her by way of example. The example below is about educating myself about the premise, and then gathering and synthesizing the information into a brief and concise explanation of what my choice was, why I chose it, and what factual support is available to justify the position I took about the importance of maps in the analysis of crime. This is an OK response, but a better one would give detail about what the specific findings were: truancy, prostitution, theft, drug use, illegal gambling, were all studied individually and contributed to a singular, overarching finding, that . . . well read below.

One contribution, that was not a computer, made by technology towards the understanding of human behavior was the original GIS—spatial relations and crime analysis done with pins and maps; the cartographic school of criminology.

Maps have been around perhaps since the beginning of the human ability to draw, as maps or geographical likeness have been found for over three thousand years (Campbell, 1993). They had a critical function for travel and especially navigation for exploration. They were used in a specific manner to better understand crime first in France around 1830, then spreading throughout urban centers of Europe (Phillips,1972).

The event under study would have a pin placed in the map, for each event. This allowed criminologists of the time to see that crime was not spread evenly or randomly throughout a city. The initial findings suggested that property crimes in particular, but also violent crime, tended to concentrate in areas of high population density. These findings didn’t really lead to any ”eureka” conclusions until the work of Shaw & McKay(1942) and many others (Thomas & Znaniecki, 1918; Anderson,1923; Park & Burgess, 1925; Lottler, 1938) from what became known as the “Chicago School”. These were scholars from the university of Chicago who collectively created a body of work that supported the idea that deviance and criminal activity in specific, was much less about the individuals and much more about the “place”. This was Social ecology or what is not referred to as environmental criminology.

The ability to see specific crimes in relationship to the location of the city, allowed these scientists to discover a paradigm shifting fact: places can be criminogenic. Prior to this the main focus was on biology of the individual (responding to previous scientific breakthroughs large as a result of Darwin’s publication) and for a brief time psychology (responding to interesting but not scientifically defensible work by Freud). The Biological, Psychological and Ecological explanations (collectively know as positivism) supplanted the previous paradigm that claimed the criminal behavior was about individual choice. While choice theories were not backed by science, only metaphysical logic, the new Positivist school of thought dominated explanations for the next century as significant developments occurred in science and scientific instrumentation. That original instrument that gave rise to the new view, was the map.
•Policing
•Corrections court administration
•Juvenile justice
•Crime analysis
•The understanding of human behavior that we call crime (Criminology)