Psychological Science Disscussions

This should be 3 or more lengthy paragraphs long. I have attached chapter 2.

No plargism.

 

Choose one of  these studies to review.  Be sure to put the name of the study in the Title  for us.  Thanks!  Dr. L.

Be sure to review the list of ethical principles that psychologists follow when using human participants so that you can address the ethics of these studies. (Ch 2, Psychological Science, Sec 2.1 or page 12)

 

Milgram: Obedience to Authority

In psychology there are certain studies that are classic. You can’t escape an introduction to psychology course without knowing about certain individuals, i.e., Freud, or certain studies such as this one and the Stanford Prison Study (next topic).

Your textbook in the chapter on “Social Psychology” (starting on page 39, Ch 14) discusses Stanley Milgram’s famous social psychology experiment, Obedience to Authority.

Here is a video clip that contains some of the original footage of Milgram’s experiment.

http://youtu.be/fCVlI-_4GZQ  

For this assignment, please answer the following four questions…..

1) What did Milgram find out?

2) What were the ethical implications (see the APA ethical requirements in the e-Readings “Psychological Science”?

3) How can Milgram’s findings be applied?

4) Any comments/impressions about this research?

The Stanford Prison Study

This study by Phillip Zimbardo is another classic study that all psychology students should know.

To see Zimbardo explain a little about the experiment watch this trailer: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKW_MzREPp4 (2 min)

However, for some original footage of the experiment itself go to this website  (Class, note that some of this footage is very disturbing, and you do not have to watch this video if it disturbs you.  Instead, read the next article below) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sZwfNs1pqG0 (14 minutes)

Forty years later, the participants in the Zimbardo experiment are interviewed and reflect on the experiment:  http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2011/julaug/features/spe.html

Answer the following questions:

What happened?

What did you learn?

Were you surprised at the results of the study?

Was the study ethical?  Should this study have been conducted?

Does Zimbardo’s study apply to the Abu Ghraib Prison (answer optional for this one)?

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Chapter 2

Psychological Science

Psychologists study the behavior of both humans and animals, and the main purpose of this

research is to help us understand people and to improve the quality of human lives. The results of

psychological research are relevant to problems such as learning and memory, homelessness,

psychological disorders, family instability, and aggressive behavior and violence. Psychological

research is used in a range of important areas, from public policy to driver safety. It guides court

rulings with respect to racism and sexism (Brown v. Board of Education, 1954; Fiske, Bersoff,

Borgida, Deaux, & Heilman, 1991), [1]

as well as court procedure, in the use of lie detectors

during criminal trials, for example (Saxe, Dougherty, & Cross, 1985). [2]

Psychological research

helps us understand how driver behavior affects safety (Fajen & Warren, 2003), [3]

which

methods of educating children are most effective (Alexander & Winne, 2006; Woolfolk-Hoy,

2005), [4]

how to best detect deception (DePaulo et al., 2003), [5]

and the causes of terrorism

(Borum, 2004). [6]

 

Some psychological research is basic research. Basic research is research that answers

fundamental questions about behavior. For instance, biopsychologists study how nerves conduct

impulses from the receptors in the skin to the brain, and cognitive psychologists investigate how

different types of studying influence memory for pictures and words. There is no particular

reason to examine such things except to acquire a better knowledge of how these processes

occur. Applied research is research that investigates issues that have implications for everyday

life and provides solutions to everyday problems. Applied research has been conducted to study,

among many other things, the most effective methods for reducing depression, the types of

advertising campaigns that serve to reduce drug and alcohol abuse, the key predictors of

managerial success in business, and the indicators of effective government programs, such as

Head Start.

Basic research and applied research inform each other, and advances in science occur more

rapidly when each type of research is conducted (Lewin, 1999). [7]

For instance, although research

concerning the role of practice on memory for lists of words is basic in orientation, the results

could potentially be applied to help children learn to read. Correspondingly, psychologist-

 

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practitioners who wish to reduce the spread of AIDS or to promote volunteering frequently base

their programs on the results of basic research. This basic AIDS or volunteering research is then

applied to help change people’s attitudes and behaviors.

The results of psychological research are reported primarily in research articles published in

scientific journals, and your instructor may require you to read some of these. The research

reported in scientific journals has been evaluated, critiqued, and improved by scientists in the

field through the process of peer review. In this book there are many citations to original

research articles, and I encourage you to read those reports when you find a topic interesting.

Most of these papers are readily available online through your college or university library. It is

only by reading the original reports that you will really see how the research process works.

Some of the most important journals in psychology are provided here for your information.

 

Psychological Journals

The following is a list of some of the most important journals in various subdisciplines of psychology. The research

articles in these journals are likely to be available in your college library. You should try to read the primary source

material in these journals when you can.

General Psychology

 American Journal of Psychology

 American Psychologist

 Behavioral and Brain Sciences

 Psychological Bulletin

 Psychological Methods

 Psychological Review

 Psychological Science

Biopsychology and Neuroscience

 Behavioral Neuroscience

 Journal of Comparative Psychology

 Psychophysiology

Clinical and Counseling Psychology

 

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 Journal of Abnormal Psychology

 Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

 Journal of Counseling Psychology

Cognitive Psychology

 Cognition

 Cognitive Psychology

 Journal of Experimental Psychology

 Journal of Memory and Language

 Perception & Psychophysics

Cross-Cultural, Personality, and Social Psychology

 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology

 Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

 Journal of Personality

 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Developmental Psychology

 Child Development

 Developmental Psychology

Educational and School Psychology

 Educational Psychologist

 Journal of Educational Psychology

 Review of Educational Research

Environmental, Industrial, and Organizational Psychology

 Journal of Applied Psychology

 Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes

 Organizational Psychology

 Organizational Research Methods

 Personnel Psychology

 

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In this chapter you will learn how psychologists develop and test their research ideas; how they

measure the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals; and how they analyze and interpret

the data they collect. To really understand psychology, you must also understand how and why

the research you are reading about was conducted and what the collected data mean. Learning

about the principles and practices of psychological research will allow you to critically read,

interpret, and evaluate research.

In addition to helping you learn the material in this course, the ability to interpret and conduct

research is also useful in many of the careers that you might choose. For instance, advertising

and marketing researchers study how to make advertising more effective, health and medical

researchers study the impact of behaviors such as drug use and smoking on illness, and computer

scientists study how people interact with computers. Furthermore, even if you are not planning a

career as a researcher, jobs in almost any area of social, medical, or mental health science require

that a worker be informed about psychological research.

[1] Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954); Fiske, S. T., Bersoff, D. N., Borgida, E., Deaux, K., & Heilman, M. E. (1991).

Social science research on trial: Use of sex stereotyping research in Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins. American Psychologist, 46(10),

1049–1060.

[2] Saxe, L., Dougherty, D., & Cross, T. (1985). The validity of polygraph testing: Scientific analysis and public

controversy. American Psychologist, 40, 355–366.

[3] Fajen, B. R., & Warren, W. H. (2003). Behavioral dynamics of steering, obstacle avoidance, and route selection. Journal of

Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 29(2), 343–362.

[4] Alexander, P. A., & Winne, P. H. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of educational psychology(2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates; Woolfolk-Hoy, A. E. (2005).Educational psychology (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

[5] DePaulo, B. M., Lindsay, J. J., Malone, B. E., Muhlenbruck, L., Charlton, K., & Cooper, H. (2003). Cues to

deception. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 74–118.

[6] Borum, R. (2004). Psychology of terrorism. Tampa: University of South Florida.

[7] Lewin, K. (1999). The complete social scientist: A Kurt Lewin reader (M. Gold, Ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological

Association.

 

 

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2.1 Psychologists Use the Scientific Method to Guide Their Research L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

1. Describe the principles of the scientific method and explain its importance in conducting and interpreting research.

2. Differentiate laws from theories and explain how research hypotheses are developed and tested.

3. Discuss the procedures that researchers use to ensure that their research with humans and with animals is ethical.

Psychologists aren’t the only people who seek to understand human behavior and solve social

problems. Philosophers, religious leaders, and politicians, among others, also strive to provide

explanations for human behavior. But psychologists believe that research is the best tool for

understanding human beings and their relationships with others. Rather than accepting the claim

of a philosopher that people do (or do not) have free will, a psychologist would collect data to

empirically test whether or not people are able to actively control their own behavior. Rather

than accepting a politician’s contention that creating (or abandoning) a new center for mental

health will improve the lives of individuals in the inner city, a psychologist would empirically

assess the effects of receiving mental health treatment on the quality of life of the recipients. The

statements made by psychologists are empirical, which means they are based on systematic

collection and analysis of data.

The Scientific Method

All scientists (whether they are physicists, chemists, biologists, sociologists, or psychologists)

are engaged in the basic processes of collecting data and drawing conclusions about those data.

The methods used by scientists have developed over many years and provide a common

framework for developing, organizing, and sharing information. The scientific method is the set

of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research.

In addition to requiring that science be empirical, the scientific method demands that the

procedures used be objective, or free from the personal bias or emotions of the scientist. The

scientific method proscribes how scientists collect and analyze data, how they draw conclusions

from data, and how they share data with others. These rules increase objectivity by placing data

under the scrutiny of other scientists and even the public at large. Because data are reported

objectively, other scientists know exactly how the scientist collected and analyzed the data. This

 

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means that they do not have to rely only on the scientist’s own interpretation of the data; they

may draw their own, potentially different, conclusions.

Most new research is designed to replicate—that is, to repeat, add to, or modify—previous

research findings. The scientific method therefore results in an accumulation of scientific

knowledge through the reporting of research and the addition to and modifications of these

reported findings by other scientists.

Laws and Theories as Organizing Principles

One goal of research is to organize information into meaningful statements that can be applied in

many situations. Principles that are so general as to apply to all situations in a given domain of

inquiry are known as laws. There are well-known laws in the physical sciences, such as the law

of gravity and the laws of thermodynamics, and there are some universally accepted laws in

psychology, such as the law of effect and Weber’s law. But because laws are very general

principles and their validity has already been well established, they are themselves rarely directly

subjected to scientific test.

The next step down from laws in the hierarchy of organizing principles is theory. A theory is an

integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed relationships

within a given domain of inquiry. One example of an important theory in psychology is the stage

theory of cognitive development proposed by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. The theory

states that children pass through a series of cognitive stages as they grow, each of which must be

mastered in succession before movement to the next cognitive stage can occur. This is an

extremely useful theory in human development because it can be applied to many different

content areas and can be tested in many different ways.

Good theories have four important characteristics. First, good theories are general, meaning they

summarize many different outcomes. Second, they are parsimonious, meaning they provide the

simplest possible account of those outcomes. The stage theory of cognitive development meets

both of these requirements. It can account for developmental changes in behavior across a wide

variety of domains, and yet it does so parsimoniously—by hypothesizing a simple set of

cognitive stages. Third, good theories provide ideas for future research. The stage theory of

 

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cognitive development has been applied not only to learning about cognitive skills, but also to

the study of children’s moral (Kohlberg, 1966) [1]

and gender (Ruble & Martin,

1998) [2]

development.

Finally, good theories are falsifiable (Popper, 1959), [3]

which means the variables of interest can

be adequately measured and the relationships between the variables that are predicted by the

theory can be shown through research to be incorrect. The stage theory of cognitive

development is falsifiable because the stages of cognitive reasoning can be measured and

because if research discovers, for instance, that children learn new tasks before they have

reached the cognitive stage hypothesized to be required for that task, then the theory will be

shown to be incorrect.

No single theory is able to account for all behavior in all cases. Rather, theories are each limited

in that they make accurate predictions in some situations or for some people but not in other

situations or for other people. As a result, there is a constant exchange between theory and data:

Existing theories are modified on the basis of collected data, and the new modified theories then

make new predictions that are tested by new data, and so forth. When a better theory is found, it

will replace the old one. This is part of the accumulation of scientific knowledge.

The Research Hypothesis

Theories are usually framed too broadly to be tested in a single experiment. Therefore, scientists

use a more precise statement of the presumed relationship among specific parts of a theory—a

research hypothesis—as the basis for their research. A research hypothesis is a specific and

falsifiable prediction about the relationship between or among two or more variables, where

a variable is any attribute that can assume different values among different people or across

different times or places. The research hypothesis states the existence of a relationship between

the variables of interest and the specific direction of that relationship. For instance, the research

hypothesis ―Using marijuana will reduce learning‖ predicts that there is a relationship between a

variable ―using marijuana‖ and another variable called ―learning.‖ Similarly, in the research

hypothesis ―Participating in psychotherapy will reduce anxiety,‖ the variables that are expected

to be related are ―participating in psychotherapy‖ and ―level of anxiety.‖

 

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When stated in an abstract manner, the ideas that form the basis of a research hypothesis are

known as conceptual variables. Conceptual variables are abstract ideas that form the basis of

research hypotheses. Sometimes the conceptual variables are rather simple—for instance, ―age,‖

―gender,‖ or ―weight.‖ In other cases the conceptual variables represent more complex ideas,

such as ―anxiety,‖ ―cognitive development,‖ ―learning,‖ self-esteem,‖ or ―sexism.‖

The first step in testing a research hypothesis involves turning the conceptual variables

into measured variables, which are variables consisting of numbers that represent the conceptual

variables. For instance, the conceptual variable ―participating in psychotherapy‖ could be

represented as the measured variable ―number of psychotherapy hours the patient has accrued‖

and the conceptual variable ―using marijuana‖ could be assessed by having the research

participants rate, on a scale from 1 to 10, how often they use marijuana or by administering a

blood test that measures the presence of the chemicals in marijuana.

Psychologists use the term operational definition to refer to a precise statement of how a

conceptual variable is turned into a measured variable. The relationship between conceptual and

measured variables in a research hypothesis is diagrammed in Figure 2.1 “Diagram of a Research

Hypothesis”. The conceptual variables are represented within circles at the top of the figure, and

the measured variables are represented within squares at the bottom. The two vertical arrows,

which lead from the conceptual variables to the measured variables, represent the operational

definitions of the two variables. The arrows indicate the expectation that changes in the

conceptual variables (psychotherapy and anxiety in this example) will cause changes in the

corresponding measured variables. The measured variables are then used to draw inferences

about the conceptual variables.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Figure 2.1 Diagram of a Research Hypothesis

 

In this research hypothesis, the conceptual variable of attending psychotherapy is operationalized using the number

of hours of psychotherapy the client has completed, and the conceptual variable of anxiety is operationalized using

self-reported levels of anxiety. The research hypothesis is that more psychotherapy will be related to less reported

anxiety.

Table 2.1 “Examples of the Operational Definitions of Conceptual Variables That Have Been

Used in Psychological Research” lists some potential operational definitions of conceptual

variables that have been used in psychological research. As you read through this list, note that in

contrast to the abstract conceptual variables, the measured variables are very specific. This

 

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specificity is important for two reasons. First, more specific definitions mean that there is less

danger that the collected data will be misunderstood by others. Second, specific definitions will

enable future researchers to replicate the research.

Table 2.1 Examples of the Operational Definitions of Conceptual Variables That Have Been Used in Psychological

Research

Conceptual variable Operational definitions

Aggression

 Number of presses of a button that administers shock to another student

 Number of seconds taken to honk the horn at the car ahead after a stoplight turns green

Interpersonal attraction

 Number of inches that an individual places his or her chair away from another person

 Number of millimeters of pupil dilation when one person looks at another

Employee satisfaction

 Number of days per month an employee shows up to work on time

 Rating of job satisfaction from 1 (not at all satisfied) to 9 (extremely satisfied)

Decision-making skills

 Number of groups able to correctly solve a group performance task

 Number of seconds in which a person solves a problem

Depression

 Number of negative words used in a creative story

 Number of appointments made with a psychotherapist

Conducting Ethical Research

One of the questions that all scientists must address concerns the ethics of their research.

Physicists are concerned about the potentially harmful outcomes of their experiments with

nuclear materials. Biologists worry about the potential outcomes of creating genetically

engineered human babies. Medical researchers agonize over the ethics of withholding potentially

beneficial drugs from control groups in clinical trials. Likewise, psychologists are continually

considering the ethics of their research.

Research in psychology may cause some stress, harm, or inconvenience for the people who

participate in that research. For instance, researchers may require introductory psychology

students to participate in research projects and then deceive these students, at least temporarily,

 

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about the nature of the research. Psychologists may induce stress, anxiety, or negative moods in

their participants, expose them to weak electrical shocks, or convince them to behave in ways

that violate their moral standards. And researchers may sometimes use animals in their research,

potentially harming them in the process.

Decisions about whether research is ethical are made using established ethical codes developed

by scientific organizations, such as the American Psychological Association, and federal

governments. In the United States, the Department of Health and Human Services provides the

guidelines for ethical standards in research. Some research, such as the research conducted by the

Nazis on prisoners during World War II, is perceived as immoral by almost everyone. Other

procedures, such as the use of animals in research testing the effectiveness of drugs, are more

controversial.

Scientific research has provided information that has improved the lives of many people.

Therefore, it is unreasonable to argue that because scientific research has costs, no research

should be conducted. This argument fails to consider the fact that there are significant costs

to not doing research and that these costs may be greater than the potential costs of conducting the

Discussed the political context of the social policy development,

Module 1: Module 1 – M1 Assignment 3

 

Dropbox AssignmentAssignment 3: Political Context of Social Policy

In this assignment, you will discuss the need to analyze the political environment when lobbying for social change, including identifying stakeholders and resources required in the policy development process. You will also prepare an analysis of the political environment surrounding a policy of your choice.

Tasks:

On the basis of the readings, create a 3- to 4-page paper responding to the following questions:

  • Why is it important to understand the political context in which a social policy issue is embedded? Similarly, why is it important to identify and involve stakeholders in the policy development process? Identify components of and resources required for the policy development cycle.
  • Research a social policy that is of interest to you. The policy can be one that has resulted in legislative action (such as the creation of new laws or regulations as a result of advocacy work), or it can be in the development cycle. Describe the political environment and considerations surrounding the issue. What is the objective of the policy? Who is the target audience (primary and secondary)? What impacts will it have, both positive and negative? Who are the stakeholders in the issue, and what are their stances on the policy?

Your final product should utilize a minimum of five resources from professional literature in your research. Professional literature may include the Argosy University online library; relevant textbooks; peer-reviewed journal articles; and websites created by professional organizations, agencies, or institutions (.edu, .org, or .gov).

Submission Details:

  • Save your paper in a Microsoft Word document named M1_A3_Lastname_Firstname.doc and by Wednesday, January 27, 2016, upload it to the M1 Assignment 3 Dropbox.
Assignment 3 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Discussed the political context of the social policy development, stakeholders involved, and the policy development cycle. Included specific examples clearly illustrating each component.
30
Discussed an active social policy or one in development. Identified the political environment, including the political players involved; the main points of political debate on the policy; and the real or proposed objectives of the policy.
20
Discussed the positive and negative impacts of the policy on a specific group or groups of citizens whose problems it is designed to address. Discussed the positive and negative impacts of the policy on society in general.
20
Discussed the stances of stakeholders in the policy, including citizens, advocates or advocate groups, elected officials, and professional organizations.
20
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
10
Total:
100
Shows the help line number for Argosy University Online Inc. The number is 1-866-4ARGOSY.

Click here to submit a content alert.

Explain how environmental cues shape behavior and provide at least one example.

My part of this team assignment is the intro and first bullet 450 words

  • Explain how environmental cues shape behavior and provide at least one example.

Prepare a 1,150- to 1,400-word paper in which you explore how human behavior can negatively and positively affect the environment. USE CRIME As a part of your paper be sure to address the following:

  • Explain how environmental cues shape behavior and provide at least one example.
  • Evaluate how behavior can be modified to support sustainability and how this can limit a negative impact on the environment.
  • Describe how social norms influence behavior and beliefs about the environment.
  • Identify at least two possible solutions that could successfully change behavior and habits in order to lessen negative environmental impact.

Include at least three references from peer-reviewed sources.

Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines.

Review the APA Ethics Code and reflect on the standards that apply to crisis response and intervention.

Case Study #2

Dr. Eisenhower is a licensed clinical psychologist employed by a community mental health agency in western Massachusetts. While she is visiting relatives in Oklahoma, a tornado strikes the small town where she is staying, killing five and leaving dozens homeless. Many in the town are traumatized, overwhelming the town’s two physicians. Although she has no training in crisis intervention, she offers her services to the doctors. Happy to have the help, physicians provide Dr. Eisenhower with a small office in their clinic, where she provides psychological support to numbers of townspeople for several days until the emergency passes.

 

 

Most professional organizations have a set of ethical principles or guidelines that guide the conduct of a crisis worker. From the essential concept of “do no harm” to more involved practices, such as obtaining informed consent, the ethical considerations that you may take for granted in normal practice are often amplified in disasters, crises, or traumas.

Crisis workers must also be aware of legal issues that may arise in the event of a disaster, crisis, or trauma. For example, when responding to crises or traumas involving minors, crisis workers are bound by mandated reporting laws. Every country has such laws, requiring mental health professionals and school personnel (among others) to report crises and traumas such as child abuse, to state departments of children, youth, and families.

In this Assignment, you will explain ethical considerations and legal issues related to responding to a disaster, crisis, or trauma described in one of two case studies.

To prepare for this Assignment:write 2 pages

  • Review the APA Ethics Code and reflect on the standards that apply to crisis response and intervention.
  • Reflect on which APA ethical principles relate to crisis response and intervention.
  • Think about the ethical considerations and legal issues related to school violence.
  • Think about the ethical considerations and/or legal issues related to the case study you chose. Then, consider how you might address those considerations and/or issues as a crisis worker.