Compare and contrast the philosophical positions and practices of Samkhya, varieties of yoga, and Advaita Vedanta.
Chapter 3
Hinduism
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Living Religions
Tenth Edition
Learning Objectives
3.1 Explain the origins and significance of the Vedas.
3.2 Illustrate how the epics and Puranas represent the Supreme.
3.3 Compare and contrast Shaktas, Shaivas, and Vaishnavas.
3.4 Describe the major philosophical systems.
3.5 Outline the main public and private rituals in Hinduism.
3.6 Discuss the issue of defining Hindu identity in modern India.
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“All states of being—goodness, passion or ignorance—are manifested by My energy. I am, in one sense, everything—but I am independent. I am not under the modes of this material nature.”
Bhagavad-Gita
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VII:7–8, 12, pp. 126, 128. All quotes from the Bhagavad-Gita are from Bhagavad-Gita as It Is, translated by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, New York: copyright © 1972, The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Quoted courtesy of The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, Inc. www.Krishna.com. Used with permission.
3
Hinduism
Collection of diverse traditions
dharma: moral order, duty, righteousness, religion; also the correct conduct for a person according to their level of awareness
Wide range of practices
asceticism: austere, detached from worldly comforts
Paths developed over millennia of practice
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Philosophical and metaphysical origins
What are the origins and significance of the Vedas?
Brahmanic tradition can be traced to the Vedic age
Metaphysical beliefs in Vedas were elaborated into various schools of thought
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The Indus Valley Civilization (1 of 2)
Advanced urban centers there between 2500 BCE to 1500 BCE
Vedas: ancient scriptures revered by Hindus
Sanskrit: the literary language of classic Hindu scriptures
“Aryan”: The Indo-European pastoral invaders of many European and Middle Eastern agricultural cultures during the second millennium BCE
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The Indus Valley Civilization (2 of 2)
“Aryan Invasion Theory”
Speculation that the Vedas were written by people invading India rather by people already there
Strongly contested
Language undeciphered
Many artifacts believed to have religious significance
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The Vedas (1 of 2)
Collection of sacred hymns
Revealed to sages (rishis)
Gayatrimantra: the daily Vedic prayer of upper-caste Hindus
Rig Veda: possibly the world’s oldest scripture, the foundation of Hinduism
devas (gods): controlling forces in the cosmos
Indra: god of thunder and bringer of rains
Agni: god of fire
Soma: associated with sacred drink
Ushas: goddess of dawn
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The Vedas (2 of 2)
Brahmanas: directions for worshiping deities
Aranyakas: forest treatises
Upanishads: the philosophical part of the Vedas in Hinduism, intended only for serious seekers
Brahman: The Supreme Reality
atman: the soul
reincarnation: the transmigration of the soul into a new body after death of the old body
karma: our actions and their effects on this life and lives to come
samsara: worldly cycle of birth, death, and rebirth
moksha: liberation
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Theistic foundations
How is the Supreme represented in the epics and Puranas?
Brahmins (priests): controlled the rituals
bhakti: intense devotion to a personal aspect of the deity
Came to prominence c. 600 CE
Egalitarian
caste: social class distinction on the basis of heredity or occupation
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The epics and Puranas (1 of 3)
Puranas: Hindu scriptures composed to popularize the abstract truths of the Vedas through stories about historical and legendary figures
Ramayana: the Hindu epic about Prince Rama, defender of good
Mahabharata: a long Hindu epic that includes the Bhagavad-Gita
avatar: incarnation of a deity
yugas: one of four recurring world cycles in Hinduism
Four stages
Kali Yuga: an age of chaos and selfishness, including the one in which we are now living
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Ramayana
Compiled between 400 BCE to 200 CE
Attributed to Valmiki
Rama: king and incarnation of Vishnu
Sita abducted by demon Ravana
Hanuman: monkey god
mantras: a sound or phrase chanted to evoke the sound vibration of one aspect of creation or to praise a deity
The epics and Puranas (2 of 3)
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The epics and Puranas (3 of 3)
Mahabharata
More than 100,000 verses long
Struggle for control of kingdom near modern-day Delhi
Heroes show human nature.
Contains the Bhagavad-Gita
Conversation between Arjuna and Krishna
About performance of duty and yogic science
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Devotional traditions
How do Shaktas, Shaivas, and Vaishnavas differ?
Shaktas: a Hindu worshiper of the female aspect of deity
Shaivas: a Hindu worshiper of Shiva
Vaishnavas: a Hindu devotee of Vishnu, particularly in his incarnation as Krishna
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Shaktas (1 of 2)
shakti: the creative, active female aspect of deity in Hinduism
“Devi”: the Mother Goddess in all her forms
Durga: the Mother Goddess as destroyer of evil, and sometimes as shakti of Shiva
Kali: the destroying and transforming Mother of the World
Lakshmi: the consort of Vishnu
Saraswati: goddess of knowledge
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Shaktas (2 of 2)
Tantras: the ancient Indian texts based on esoteric worship of the divine as feminine
kundalini: life force that can be awakened from the base of the spine and raised to illuminate the spiritual center at the top of the head
maya: the attractive but illusory physical world
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Shaivas
Shiva:
The Supreme as god of yogis
Destroying aspect of the Supreme
Unity of male and female
Parvati: Shiva’s spouse, sweet daughter of the Himalayas.
lingam: a cylindrical stone representing the unmanifest aspect of Shiva
yoni: abstract Hindu representation of the female vulva, cosmic matrix of life
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Vaishnavas
Vishnu: the preserving aspect of the Supreme Tender and merciful
Incarnations
Rama in the Ramayana
Krishna in the Mahabharata
International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON)
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Major philosophical systems
What are three of the most prominent philosophical systems related to the Vedas?
Samkhya: the interaction of activity, inertia, and equilibrium governs the development of the world
Advaita Vedanta: the goal is the realization that the self is Brahman
yoga: a systematic approach to spiritual realization
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Samkhya
Oldest philosophical system in India
Highly analytical
Three qualities:
sattva: fine, illuminated, balanced
rajas: active, passionate
tamas: heavy, inert, coarse
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Advaita Vedanta
Non-dualist
monistic: life is a unified whole
Propounded by Shankara
Brahman is essence of everything
Concealed by maya (illusion)
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Yoga
Word means “yoke” or “union”
Raja yoga:
sadhanas: a spiritual practice
sutras: a terse saying
samadhi: blissful state of superconscious union with the Absolute
asana: a yogic posture
prana: the invisible life force
chakras: subtle energy centers in the body
OM: the primordial sound
Jnana yoga: employs the mind to transcend ignorance
Karma yoga: service rendered with no interest in fruit
Bhakti yoga: devotion to a personal deity
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The Hindu way of life (1 of 5)
What is puja?
Castes, duties, and life goals
varna: one of four traditional occupational groupings in Hinduism
“untouchables”: the lowest caste in Brahmanic Hindu society
Many now call themselves Dalits (oppressed)
Life stages
Four stages
sannyasin: renunciate spiritual seeker
ashram: a usually ascetic spiritual community
The guru: an enlightened spiritual teacher
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The Hindu way of life (2 of 5)
Rituals
puja: Hindu ritual worship
darshan: visual contact with the divine through encounters with Hindu images or gurus
prasad: blessed food
Loving service is often performed
havan: a sacred fireplace around which ritual fire ceremonies are conducted
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The Hindu way of life (3 of 5)
Fasts, prayers, and auspicious designs
Orthodox Brahmins observe many fasts.
Astrology is highly regarded.
Reverence of trees and rivers
Trees can absorb suffering.
Rivers are life-sustaining and purifying.
Pilgrimages
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The Hindu way of life (4 of 5)
Festivals
Sixteen religious holidays recognized by Indian government
Lunar calendar
Holi: joyful celebration of the death of winter
Durga Puja: goddess’s and Rama’s victory over demons
Divali: the return of Rama after exile
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The Hindu way of life (5 of 5)
Women’s religious roles
Females venerated in Hinduism
Women not encouraged to seek liberation
Role linked to husband
In Vedic times, women relatively free
Bhakti saints achieved high levels of realization
hagiography: idealized biography of the life of a saint
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Hinduism in the modern world
Why is Hindu identity an important issue in modern India?
Modern movements
Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948): Indian nationalist
Ramakrishna (1836–1886): goddess devotee
Vivekananda (1863–1902): carried message of Hinduism to the world
Global Hinduism
Hindus in diaspora
ISKCON: international Hinduism
Hindu identity
India’s constitution based on secularism (policy of not favoring any one religion)
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