First Draft: Expository Essay

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Now that you have written the outline for your essay, it is time to write the first draft. Please access your resources by clicking the drop-down menu, selecting path, and then click course materials.

  1. Review the attached “Writing a Five-Paragraph Essay” resource to help guide you through the structure of a five-paragraph essay.
  2. Review the media piece The Writing Process to help you prepare your first draft.
  3. Review your outline feedback from your instructor to help you prepare your first draft.
  4. Write the first draft of your five-paragraph expository essay, which should be 750-1,000 words.
  5. Review the First Draft Rubric to help you make sure all elements are present in your essay. This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.
  6. Review the attached “Essay Checklist” to help you review and make sure your essay includes the following:
  • An introductory paragraph with a thesis statement.
  • Three body or supporting paragraphs.
  • A concluding paragraph.
  • In-text citations and a reference page. (Remember to reference and cite any supporting information you are taking from your articles-if it is not your original thought, there needs to be a citation and reference.)

Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center.

Submit the completed First Draft to LopesWrite and review your report BEFORE submitting to your instructor. Access the additional instructions on how to understand your report in your resources.

Once you know your first draft is ready to submit to your instructor, submit the completed assignment to the final assignment dropbox by the end of Topic 4 (Sunday, by 11:59pm, Arizona Time).

AttachmentsUNV-104-RS-Writing a Five Paragraph Essay Resource.docx
UNV-104-RS-Essay Checklist.docx

Case Management: Definition and Responsibilities 1

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F i F t h e d i t i o n

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Fundamentals of Case Management Practice Skills for the Human Services

N a N c y S u m m e r S Harrisburg Area Community College

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Fundamentals of Case Management Practice: Skills for the Human Services, Fifth edition Nancy Summers

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To my parents, whose humor and wisdom about people and relationships formed the foundation for my work with others

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iv Contents

Preface xiii

Section 1 Foundations for Best Practice in Case Management

Chapter 1 Case Management: Definition and Responsibilities 1

Introduction 1 A History of Case Management 2 Language in Social Services 2 Why We Use Case Management 3 Case Management as a Process 4 Advocacy 13 Service Coordination 13 Levels of Case Management 16 Separating Case Management from Therapy 19 Case Management in Provider Agencies 19 Managed Care and Case Management 21 Caseloads 25 Generic Case Management 26 Summary 26 Exercises I: Case Management 27 Exercises II: Decide on the Best Course of Action 30

Chapter 2 Ethics and Other Professional Responsibilities for Human Service Workers 33

Introduction 33 The Broader Ethical Concept 34 Dual Relationships 35 Boundaries 40 Value Conflicts 40 The Rights of Individuals Receiving Services 44 Confidentiality 47 Privacy 51 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act 52 Social Networking 55 Privileged Communication 56 When You Can Give Information 56 Diagnostic Labeling 59

Contents

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Contents v

Involuntary Commitment 60 Ethical Responsibilities 61 Protecting a Person’s Self-Esteem 62 Stealing from Clients 64 Competence 65 Responsibility to Your Colleagues and the Profession 65 Professional Responsibility 67 Summary 68 Exercises I: Ethics 69 Exercises II: Ethically, What Went Wrong? 71 Exercises III: Decide on the Best Course of Action 76 Exercises IV: What is Wrong Here? 76

Chapter 3 Applying the Ecological Model: A Theoretical Foundation for Human Services 77

Introduction 77 The Three Levels of the Ecological Model 79 The Micro Level: Looking at What the Person Brings 80 Looking at What the Context Brings 80 Why Context Is Important 81 Seeking a Balanced View of the Client 82 Developmental Transitions 86 Developing the Interventions 87 Working with the Generalist Approach 88 Macro Level Interventions Are Advocacy 88 Summary 90 Exercises I: Looking at Florence’s Problem on Three Levels 90 Exercises II: Designing Three Levels of Intervention 91

Section 2 Useful Clarifications and Attitudes

Chapter 4 Cultural Competence 95

Introduction 95 Culture and Communication 95 Your Ethical Responsibility 96 Where Are the Differences? 96 Strangers 98 Anxiety and Uncertainty 99 Thoughtless versus Thoughtful Communication 100 Dimensions of Culture 104 Obstacles to Understanding 109 Competence 111 Summary 112 Exercises I: Testing Your Cultural Competence 113

Chapter 5 Attitudes and Boundaries 117

Introduction 117 Understanding Attitudes 117 Basic Helping Attitudes 118

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vi Contents

Reality Check 123 How Clients Are Discouraged 124 A Further Understanding of Boundaries 127 Seeing Yourself and the Client as Completely Separate Individuals 127 Erecting Detrimental Boundaries 129 Transference and Countertransference 129 Summary 130 Exercises I: Demonstrating Warmth, Genuineness, and Empathy 131 Exercises II: Recognizing the Difference—Encouragement

or Discouragement 136 Exercises III: Blurred Boundaries 136

Chapter 6 Clarifying Who Owns the Problem 139

Introduction 139 Boundaries and Power 140 If the Client Owns the Problem 141 If You Own the Problem 143 If You Both Own the Problem 144 Summary 145 Exercises I: Who Owns the Problem? 145 Exercises II: Making the Strategic Decision 147

Section 3 Effective Communication

Chapter 7 Identifying Good Responses and Poor Responses 149

Introduction 149 Communication Is a Process 150 Twelve Roadblocks to Communication 151 Useful Responses 156 Summary 164 Exercises: Identifying Roadblocks 165

Chapter 8 Listening and Responding 169

Introduction 169 Defining Reflective Listening 170 Responding to Feelings 170 Responding to Content 174 Positive Reasons for Reflective Listening 176 Points to Remember 177 Summary 178 Exercises I: How Many Feelings Can You Name? 179 Exercises II: Finding the Right Feeling 179 Exercises III: Reflective Listening 180

Chapter 9 Asking Questions 187

Introduction 187 When Questions Are Important 187 Closed Questions 188 Open Questions 189

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Contents vii

Questions That Make the Other Person Feel Uncomfortable 190

A Formula for Asking Open Questions 192 Summary 195 Exercises I: What Is Wrong with These Questions? 195 Exercises II: Which Question Is Better? 197 Exercises III: Opening Closed Questions 198 Exercises IV: Try Asking Questions 200

Chapter 10 Bringing Up Difficult Issues 203

Introduction 203 Confrontation 203 Exchanging Views 204 When to Initiate an Exchange of Views 204 Using I-Messages to Initiate an Exchange of Views 207 Asking Permission to Share Ideas 213 Advocacy: Confronting Collaterals 214 On Not Becoming Overbearing 215 Follow-up 217 Summary 217 Exercises I: What Is Wrong Here? 217 Exercise II: Constructing a Better Response 219 Exercises III: Expressing Your Concern 219 Exercises IV: Expressing a Stronger Message 222

Chapter 11 Addressing and Disarming Anger 225

Introduction 225 Common Reasons for Anger 225 Why Disarming Anger Is Important 226 Avoiding the Number-One Mistake 227 Erroneous Expectations for Perfect Communication:

Another Reality Check 228 The Four-Step Process 229 What You Do Not Want to Do 231 Look for Useful Information 233 Safety in the Workplace 233 The Importance of Staff Behavior 234 Summary 235 Exercises I: Initial Responses to Anger 235 Exercises II: Practicing Disarming 236

Chapter 12 Collaborating with People for Change 239

Introduction 239 What Is Change? 239 Stages of Change 240 Understanding Ambivalence and Resistance 244 Encouragement 247 Recovery Tools 250 Communication Skills That Facilitate Change 252

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viii Contents

Trapping the Client 258 From Adversarial to Collaborative 258 Summary 262 Exercises: Helping People Change 263

Chapter 13 Case Management Principles: Optional Review 265

Introduction 265 Combining Skills and Attitudes 265 Practice 267 Exercise I 267 Exercise II 268 Exercise III 271 Exercise IV 273 Exercise V 274

Section 4 Meeting Clients and Assessing Their Strengths and Needs

Chapter 14 Documenting Initial Inquiries 277

Introduction 277 Walk-ins 278 Guidelines for Filling Out Forms 278 Steps for Filling Out the New Referral

or Inquiry Form 278 Evaluating the Client’s Motivation

and Mood 282 Steps for Preparing the Verification of Appointment Form 282 Summary 284 Exercises I: Intake of a Middle-Aged Adult 284 Exercises II: Intake of a Child 284 Exercises III: Intake of an Infirm, Older Person 285

Chapter 15 The First Interview 287

Introduction 287 Your Role 288 The Client’s Understanding 288 Preparing for the First Interview 288 Your Office 290 Meeting the Client 290 Summary 295

Chapter 16 Social Histories and Assessment Forms 297

Introduction 297 What Is a Social History? 298 Layout of the Social History 298 How to Ask What You Need to Know 299 Who Took the Social History 306 Social Histories in Other Settings 310 Writing Brief Social Histories 311

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Contents ix

Using an Assessment Form 314 Taking Social Histories on a Computer 316 Taking Social Histories in the Home 316 The Next Step 317 Summary 317 Exercises I: Practice with Social Histories 318 Exercises II: Assessment of a Middle-Aged Adult 318 Exercises III: Assessment of a Child 319 Exercises IV: Assessment of an Infirm, Older Person 320 Exercises V: Creating a File 320

Chapter 17 Using the DSM 321

Introduction 321 Is DSM Only a Mental Health Tool? 322 Cautions 322 Who Makes the Diagnosis? 323 Background Information 323 The DSM-IV-TR 327 DSM 5, the Current Diagnostic Manual 328 Making the Code Using DSM 5 330 Multiple Diagnoses 331 Other Conditions That May Be a Focus

of Clinical Attention 332 When the Diagnosis Does Not Quite Fit 332 When There Is No Number 333 Summary 333 Exercises: Using the DSM 5 334

Chapter 18 The Mental Status Examination 337

Introduction 337 Observing the Client 338 Mental Status Examination Outline 339 Summary 356 Exercises: Using the MSE Vocabulary 356

Chapter 19 Receiving and Releasing Information 359

Introduction 359 Sending for Information 359 If You Release Information 359 Directions for Using Release Forms 360 Examples of the Release Forms 362 When the Client Wants You to Release Information 363 When the Material Is Received 363 Other Issues Related to Releasing Information 365 Summary 365 Exercises I: Send for Information Related to a

Middle-Aged Adult 366 Exercises II: Send for Information Related to a Child 366 Exercises III: Send for Information Related to a Frail,

Older Person 366 Exercises IV: Maintaining Your Charts 366

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x Contents

Section 5 Developing a Plan with the Client

Chapter 20 Developing a Service Plan at the Case Management Unit 367

Introduction 367 Involving the Client and the Family 368 Using the Assessment 369 Creating the Treatment or Service Plan 372 How to Identify the Client’s Strengths 373 Individualized Planning 374 Understanding Barriers 375 Sample Goal Plan 375 Summary 376 Exercises: Broad General Goal Planning 377 Exercise I: Planning for a Middle-Aged Adult 377 Exercise II: Planning for a Child 377 Exercise III: Planning for an Infirm, Older Person 377 Exercise IV: Maintaining Your Charts 377 Exercise V: Checking Services 378

Chapter 21 Preparing for a Service Planning Conference or Disposition Planning Meeting 379

Introduction 379 What You Will Need to Bring to the Meeting 380 Goals for the Meeting 380 Benefits of Conference Planning 381 Collaboration 382 Preparing to Present Your Case 383 Making the Presentation 383 Sample Presentation 384 Follow-Up to Meeting 385 Summary 385 Exercises: Planning 386 Exercise I: Developing a Service Directory 386 Exercise II: A Simulated Planning Meeting 386

Chapter 22 Making the Referral and Assembling the Record 387

Introduction 387 Determining Dates 388 Sample Referral Notification Form 389 The Face Sheet 390 Summary 392 Exercises: Assembling the Record 393

Chapter 23 Documentation and Recording 395

Introduction 395 The Importance of Documentation 396 Writing Contact Notes 396 Labeling the Contact 398 Documenting Service Monitoring 398 Documentation: Best Practice 399 Government Requirements 402 Do Not Be Judgmental 402

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Contents xi

Distinguish Between Facts and Impressions 403 Give a Balanced Picture of the Person 404 Provide Evidence of Agreement 404 Making Changes to the Plan 404 Summary 404 Exercises: Recording Your Meeting with the Client 405 Exercise I: Recording Client Contacts 405 Exercise II: Using Government Guidelines to Correct Errors 411 Exercise III: Spotting Recording Errors 411

Section 6 Monitoring Services and Following the Client

Chapter 24 Monitoring the Services or Treatment 413

Introduction 413 What Is Monitoring? 414 The Financial Purpose of Monitoring 414 Follow-Up 416 Collaboration with Other Agencies 416 Advocating 417 Leave the Office 418 Responding to a Crisis 419 Summary 420

Chapter 25 Developing Goals and Objectives at the Provider Agency 421

Introduction 421 Client Participation/Collaboration 422 Make Objectives Manageable 423 Expect Positive Outcomes 423 Objectives 425 Combining Goals and Treatment Objectives 426 Finishing Touches 428 Review Dates 429 Vocabulary 430 Summary 432 Exercises: Developing Goals and Objectives 432 Exercise I 432 Exercise II 433 Exercise III 434 Exercise IV 436 Exercise V 437

Chapter 26 Terminating the Case 439

Introduction 439 A Successful Termination 440 The Discharge Summary 443 Examples 444 Summary 447 Exercises I: Termination of a Middle-Aged Adult 448 Exercises II: Termination of a Child 448 Exercises III: Termination of a Frail, Older Person 448 Exercises IV: Organizing the Record 448

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xii Contents

Appendix A Ten Fundamental Components of Recovery 449

Appendix B Vocabulary of Emotions 451

Appendix C Wildwood Case Management Unit Forms 454

Appendix D Prochaska and DiClemente’s Stages of Change Model 487

Appendix E Work Samples 490

Appendix F Grading the Final Files 496

Appendix G Information for Understanding DSM IV TR Diagnoses 499

Appendix H Case Manager’s Toolbox 506

References 515

Index 518

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Discuss the validity, reliability, and any biases.

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In this assignment, you need to address the items below in separate sections with new headings for each.

  • Identify the global societal problem-POVERTY AND INCOME INEQUALITY within the introductory paragraph.
    • Conclude with a thesis statement that states your proposed solutions to the problem-ATTACHED
  • Describe background information on how that problem developed or came into existence-PROVERTY AND INCOME INEQUALITY
    • Show why this is a societal problem.
    • Provide perspectives from multiple disciplines or populations so that you fully represent what different parts of society have to say about this issue.
  • Construct an argument supporting your proposed solutions, considering multiple disciplines or populations so that your solution shows that multiple parts of society will benefit from this solution.
    • Provide evidence from multiple scholarly sources as evidence that your proposed solution is viable.
  • Interpret statistical data from at least three peer-reviewed scholarly sources within your argument.
    • Discuss the validity, reliability, and any biases.
    • Identify the strengths and weaknesses of these sources, pointing out limitations of current research and attempting to indicate areas for future research. (You may use visual representations such as graphs or charts to explain statistics from sources.)
  • Evaluate the ethical outcomes that result from your solution.
    • Provide at least one positive ethical outcome as well as at least one negative ethical outcome that could result from your solution.
    • Explain at least two ethical issues related to each of those outcomes. (It is important to consider all of society.)
  • In conclusion rephrasing your thesis and then presenting the major points of the topic and how they support your argument.

IT IS OK TO USE THE ATTACHMENT BUT WITHOUT THE BIBLIOGRAPHY PORTION. ADD AND ADDITIONAL 600 + WORDS HITTING ON THE POINTS MENTIONED ABOVE. I HAVE ALSO ATTACHED WHAT I SUBMITTED FOR A ROUGH DRAFT AND THIS CAN BE USED AS WELL.

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

Poverty and Income Inequality

 

Caryn L. Hayes

University of Arizona Global Campus

GEN 499 General Education Capstone

Instructor: Dr. Patricia Mouton

June 27, 2021

 

 

 

Poverty and Income Inequality

Introduction

The world is suffering from several societal issues, but poverty and income inequality are the most daunting among all of them. This paper highlights the correlation between poverty and inequality and discusses the impacts of income inequality on the poorer segments of society. Some suggestions for the elimination of these inequalities and making the world an inclusively safer place to live in are also discussed. The widening gaps between the rich and poor are causing much harm to the economic growth of different nations. The income inequalities based on gender, race, class, and religion have exposed the unjust distribution of resources in the 21st century. Poverty and income inequality have a directly proportional relationship. When there exists a wage gap in society, it leads to poverty. Consequently, people’s living standards are affected badly, the education system becomes fragmented, the healthcare facilities are given based on nepotism, corruption becomes the order of the day, and criminal tendencies find a way to grow in society. Hence, poverty and income inequality are the most important social issues as they contribute much to people’s problems. Income inequality is an evil that has caused harm to the impoverished class of society and has made the world more biased, unjust, and discriminatory.

Thesis Statement

Poverty and inequality are the two major societal issues that need to be highlighted to assess their negative impacts on social justice and figure out how to eradicate them for the sake of an inclusive and safer world.

 

Annotated Bibliography

Ainous, R. (2018). Macroeconomic, Income Inequality, and Poverty Relationship: A Review of Research Perspectives. The Review of Black Political Economy, 45(2), 123–146

This article explains the causes and impacts of income inequality on the poor sections of society. It also views the macroeconomic indicators that are affected by income inequality. The purpose of choosing this article is to discuss how income inequalities pose a threat to the wellbeing of citizens in general and the state in particular. It shows the lack of financial equilibrium among different strata of society lowers the living standards of people. When people are not getting equitable resources to fulfil their needs, they get to indulge in the problems of food insecurity, malnutrition, child labor, and illiteracy. It further leads to the bad performance of countries on the Human Development Index. This paper will contribute to the final assignment because it comprehensively analyses the negative impacts of income inequalities. It also draws a roadmap for reducing the widespread inequalities all around the world. It suggests that discrimination can be reduced by creating an inclusive environment in the technological sector. It also states that pro-poor policies should be made to counter the evil of income inequality at the state level. It also says that institutions should be strengthened to make the world an inclusive place. Hence, this article will go a long way in resolving the deep-rooted societal issues of poverty and income inequality (Ainous, 2018).

 

 

 

Berman, Y., Ben-Jacob, E., & Shapira, Y. (2016). The Dynamics of Wealth Inequality and the Effect of Income Distribution. PLOS ONE, 11(4)

This article provides a clear insight into the long-lasting impacts of income inequality on poverty. It reveals that when a handful of the population controls more than half of the national resources, it creates a sense of rebellion among the impoverished segments of society. This article is helpful for the research of my topic as it draws a relationship between income inequality and crime. It reveals that when people are not treated equally in finance matters, they adopt some criminal tendencies. It also gives evidence that there is equal distribution of resources in Scandinavian countries where there is equal distribution of resources (Berman et al.,2016). On the other hand, in third world countries like Iraq, where there is a wide gap between rich and poor, the crime rate is very high there. It depicts that when people do not get enough money to fulfil their basic needs, they get indulged in malpractices like snatching, theft, and bribery. Hence, this article is a useful addition to the research of this topic as it shows new dynamics of inequality.

Lakner, C., Mahler, D. G., Negre, M., & amp; Prydz, E. B. (2019). How Much Does Reducing Inequality Matter for Global Poverty?

The purpose of choosing this article is to highlight the importance of reducing inequality in the world. This article describes that reducing income inequality can become the panacea for several other socio-economic issues that the world is confronted with. It says that if income inequalities are diminished, there are brighter chances for gender equality in the world. When women would be financially independent and would get equal wages, they would live a blessed and happy life. Likewise, the fair distribution of resources can enhance national unity, and the internal chaos can be eliminated from the countries. Moreover, the eradication of income inequalities can also alleviate the fragmentation in the education system. If people are getting equal pay, there would not be any difference in the literacy rate of the poor and rich. All people would be treated equally in the hospitals as well. Hence, this article is a valuable addition to this research as it raises awareness about the benefits of reducing inequality in the world ( Lakner et al., 2019).

Peterson, E. (2017). Is Economic Inequality a Problem? A Review of the Arguments Social Sciences, 6(4), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci6040147

This article talks about the relationship between poverty and income inequality. The purpose of choosing this article is to draw a clear connection between the two most important social issues. This article explains that both societal issues are interconnected. It has been mentioned here that Income inequality leads to poverty. When people are not treated equally in the matters of payment for their services, it creates a sense of deprivation among them. When males are awarded more wages for the same job than women, it creates a sense of isolation among them. Women consider themselves inferior human beings, and it also adds much to their financial woes. This article draws a comparison between the rich and poor nations and shows that the countries having fewer income inequalities are also less affected by poverty. It has been discussed here that the lack of equal wages causes frustration among the excluded segments of society (Peterson, 2017). This article also says that income inequalities should be reduced by taking pragmatic and decisive actions on the state level to make the world more inclusive and equal for all.

 

 

Torry, M. (2018). Reducing poverty and inequality. Why We Need a Citizen’s Basic Income, 81–92 978-1447343172

The motive behind choosing this article is to discuss the usefulness of equal income for individuals and states. It describes that reducing poverty and inequality is imperative for the economic growth of a country. It states that when there is a fair distribution of financial resources, people would be more eager to contribute to the wellbeing of their nation. The living standards of people can be raised by reducing poverty and inequality. It can also contribute to enhancing the per capita income of the citizens. This article also says that justice would prevail in the countries if all people are treated equally. It shows that when all people are treated equally, there are fewer chances of corruption (Torry, 2018). People would not adopt corrupt practices for gaining more wealth if their needs are already fulfilled with their salaries. However, this article is very beneficial as it suggests multiple advantages of reducing poverty and inequality in the world.

 

References

Ainous, R. (2018). Macroeconomic, Income Inequality, and Poverty Relationship: A Review of Research Perspectives. The Review of Black Political Economy, 45(2), 123–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/0034644618794684

Berman, Y., Ben-Jacob, E., & Shapira, Y. (2016). The Dynamics of Wealth Inequality and the Effect of Income Distribution. PLOS ONE, 11(4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154196

Lakner, C., Mahler, D. G., Negre, M., & Prydz, E. B. (2019). How Much Does Reducing Inequality Matter for Global Poverty? https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-8869

Peterson, E. (2017). Is Economic Inequality a Problem? A Review of the Arguments. Social Sciences, 6(4), 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci6040147

Torry, M. (2018). Reducing poverty and inequality. Why We Need a Citizen’s Basic Income, 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781447343158.003.0006

Review the Roseberry-McKibbin (2012) article in the Learning Resources and reflect on the statistics that highlight the effects of poverty on early language experiences

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The Impact of Poverty and Homelessness on Children’s Oral and Literate Language: Practical Implications for

Service Delivery

from a presentation at ASHA Schools Conference Milwaukee, Wisconsin

July 28, 2012

By Celeste Roseberry-McKibbin, PhD

California State University, Sacramento

San Juan Unified School District

I. Key Points

● Statistics regarding poverty in the U.S. ● Factors that impact low-SES students’ linguistic and academic achievement ● Effects of poverty on oral and literate language development ● Suggestions for supporting low-SES parents in increasing their children’s language skills ● Strategies for professionals for increasing the oral and written language skills of low-SES students ● Executive functioning deficits in students and summary of remediation strategies

II. Understanding Variables Affecting Low-SES Students’ Performance

Background ● Never equate poverty with dysfunction. ● The term, poverty, often brings to mind the cultural differences that arise from race, ethnicity,

religion, country of origin, and ability or disability. However, in many countries, substantial cultural differences exist between people who are economically disadvantaged and those who are advantaged (Turnbull & Justice, 2012).

Variables • The standard of living for those in the bottom 10% is lower in the United States than in any other

developed nation, except the United Kingdom. • Poor families with three or more people spend about one third of their income on food. • Last year, 7.7% of African American women and 8.5% of Hispanic women worked in jobs that paid

at or below minimum wage, as compared to 4.3% of White men (www.nwlc.org, 2011). • African American and Hispanic women are more likely than white women to be heads of

households. • Married households’ median annual 2011 income was $71,830, while female-headed households

earned $32,597.

 

 

Effects of Homelessness • Homeless children and youth lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence. • These children often live in cars, parks, public places, abandoned buildings, or bus or train

stations. • The cause is the inability of people to pay for housing; thus, homelessness is impacted by both

income and the affordability of available housing (National Alliance to End Homelessness, 2012). Potential Psychological and Physical Effects • Malnutrition • Illness • Hearing and vision problems • Housing problems (e.g., lead poisoning, homelessness, frequent moving, crowded conditions, no

place to play outside) • Neighborhood problems (e.g., violence) • Family stress • Fewer learning resources • Lack of cognitive and linguistic stimulation Observations ● When financial resources are stressed, there are higher rates of maternal depression. ● Compared with higher-income mothers, who tend to be more warm and verbal with their children,

low-income mothers often show lower levels of warmth, responsiveness, and sensitivity when interacting with young children. (Barrett & Turner, 2005; La Paro, Justice, Skibbe, & Plante, 2004; Neuman, 2009)

 

 

● The overall warmth and effect of a home, which promote caregiver-child bonding, form the very foundation of language development.

 

III. Definition of Situational vs. Generational Poverty (Payne, 2003; Roseberry-McKibbin, 2013)

Characteristics of Situational Poverty • Common for immigrants • Occurs for a shorter period of time • Usually the result of circumstances (divorce, illness, death) • People have a sense of pride and a belief in their ability to rise above their circumstances through

hard work. • They may refuse to accept offers of help as “charity.”

Characteristics of Generational Poverty • Affects a family for two generations or longer • Usually involves welfare • A common attitude is “I am stuck, and the world owes me.” • There is a short-term value system, which emphasizes survival in the present—not planning for

the future (e.g., long-range educational plans). Comparison of Situational and Generational Poverty The values of persons in situational and generational poverty may differ in a number of areas.

 

 

 

SITUATIONAL • Life priorities include achievement,

possessions, status.

• Money is to be saved, managed, invested.

• Religion is one of the accoutrements of life; fits into the person’s schedule.

 

• Time is to be valued; punctuality is critical; the future is important.

• Destiny is in our hands; we all have

choices; there is an internal locus of control.

• Education is crucial for getting ahead in

life, making good $$, being respected. • Entertainment is a reward for hard work;

money is used for education and life comforts; leftover $$ is used for entertainment after other priorities are met.

• Discipline is important; punishment/

negative consequences are about change; “don’t be sorry, be different.”

• Organization and planning are very important. Life is carefully scheduled into structured time slots. Structure is crucial: Calendars, iPhones, and other organizational devices proliferate.

• With language, formal register is used;

language is used to meet needs, get ahead in life.

• Interaction style values quiet;

conversational partners do not interrupt, but politely wait their turn.

 

GENERATIONAL • Survival, entertainment, relationships are

important; it’s all about the PRESENT. • Money is to be spent, especially on things

that bring pleasure in the moment. • Religion may be the center of much of life;

a great deal of time may be spent at the church.

• “You get there when you get there”; the

present is most important;

• “You can’t fight city hall”; there can be learned helplessness; there is an external locus of control.

• Education is valued in the abstract, not

emphasized as a real or attainable goal. • Entertainment plays a crucial role and is

highly valued; it may take precedence over education; the present is all we have (e.g., Why not enjoy life right now?); live in the moment.

• Punishment is not about change; it is

about penance and forgiveness; the person’s behavior continues as before.

• Organizational/planning devices are

virtually nonexistent. Clutter is common; structure is not valued. Planning ahead is not common; “living by the seat of your pants” is typical.

• Casual register is used; language is used

for entertainment and for survival. • There is constant background noise;

interruptions during conversation are common and expected.

 

Home Language • “Those shoes suck.” • “Gimme that apple.” • “Dude, that was totally stupid.”

 

School Language • “Those shoes are different than your

usual.” • “I’m hungry—that apple looks good.” • “Interesting idea—hadn’t thought of it that

way.”

 

 

 

IV. Factors Impacting Oral Language Language Characteristics Correlated With Low SES • Being poor does not cause children to have language and behavioral impairments. • Never equate poverty with dysfunction. • However, certain language and behavioral characteristics are associated with being from a low-

SES background (Nelson, 2010). Limited Access to Health Care • This issue can impact language skills. • If the mother is malnourished during pregnancy, the child’s brain development can be impacted. • Children who are often sick miss school. • If children are sick or hungry, they have difficulty learning; it is hard for them to concentrate. • Middle ear infections can impact listening and even written language (e.g., reading, spelling). Observations • There is a strong correlation between adults’ education and their income levels. • Long-term welfare dependency is associated with low literacy skills and lack of a high school

diploma. • In terms of educational level of caregivers, research has found that SES is more critical to a child’s

language development than ethnic background. • The factor most highly related to SES is the mother’s educational level. Caretakers Who Have Little Formal Education • They may not provide adequate oral language stimulation for children. • They may not believe that it is important to talk with babies and young children (who are not

treated as conversational partners).

Research Pruitt & Oetting (2009) • Children from low-income families have been shown to have limited input, in terms of volubility

and quality, when compared to children from wealthier families, and these differences have been linked to delayed language abilities.

Nelson (2010) • Children in low-income families are engaged more in talk about immediate daily living concerns—

for example, what to eat, wear, and do or not do. • Conversations in low-SES homes often do not extend beyond practical concerns. • One consequence of this is that low-SES children often have very concrete language. • They have difficulty understanding the abstract, decontextualized language of school. Hart & Risley (1995) • The researchers conducted longitudinal studies of families from various ethnic and SES

backgrounds. • Over several years, they observed behavior in the homes of 1- to 2-year-old children from three

groups: welfare, working class, and professional. • Hart and Risley concluded that SES made an “overwhelming difference” in how much talking went

on in a family. • The family factor most strongly associated with the amount of talking in the home was not

ethnicity, but SES. • In a 365-day year, children from professional families would have heard 4 million utterances.

 

 

• Children from welfare families would have heard 250,000 utterances. • The number of utterances in working class families fell somewhere in between. • Even by 3 years of age, the difference in vocabulary knowledge between children from welfare

homes and those from middle class homes was so great that—in order for the welfare children to gain a vocabulary equivalent to that of children from working class homes—the welfare children would need to attend a preschool program for 40 hours per week where they heard language at a level used in the homes of professional families..

 

IV. Strategies to Enhance Language Stimulation in Infants • Research shows that high-quality preschool programs portend the best short- and long-term

results for at-risk children from low-SES homes. • It is especially ideal if these programs can begin in infancy (The Carolina Abecedarian Project,

2006; Hart & Risley, 1995; Fowler, Ogston, Roberts-Fiati, & Swenson, 1995; Loeb, Fuller, Kagan, & Chang, 2004).

Strategies include the following: ● Read to babies (simple books with colorful pictures are best). ● Talk to the baby; face-to-face contact is ideal. ● Label common objects. ● Introduce music and singing ● Let the baby have a safe-glass mirror to look in. ● Point out and label body parts during activities such as dressing and bathing. ● Use short utterances with simple syntax. ● Heighten facial expressions, gestures, and intonation. ● Play turn-taking games such as pattycake and peek-a-boo. ● In very early infancy, introduce black-and-white objects. ● Imitate sounds the baby makes, and make new sounds. ● Make a habit of using greetings and leave takings (“Bye bye, Allison!”). ● Provide many opportunities for babies to put simple objects into containers and then take them

out. ● While doing household chores and errands, bring the baby along and describe what is happening. ● Introduce two languages from birth if possible.

Research Tamis-LeMonda (2001) • Caregivers’ responsiveness is a major key to language growth. • The extent to which mothers imitated their 13-month-old children predicted the timing of the

children’s later language milestones.

– For example, if the child said “Ba!” the mother said “Ball!” – This predicted the timing of things like the child’s development of her first 50 words and the

use of two-word combinations. • We can even imitate non-speech movements (e.g., smiling, yawning). • Mother’s rapid response correlated highly with the child’s vocalizations.

– The toddlers of high responders were 6 months ahead, language-wise, of toddlers of low responders; they were saying their first word at age 10 months and reaching other milestones by age 14 months.

– How often a mother initiated a conversation with her child was not predictive of language outcomes; the most significant factor was—if the child initiated—whether the mother responded.

 

 

– The most powerful mechanism for moving a baby from babbling to fluent speech was how a parent responded (or not) to a child’s vocalizations in the moment.

 

V. Strategies for Preschool Children

• Qi and Kaiser (2004) showed that some preschool children had emotional-behavioral issues that impacted their social interactions with other children.

• Kimochis can be used as a tool for supporting social skills (Dodge, Rice, & Grimm, 2010).

– Kimochis are plush toys that designate feelings. – They are accompanied by a program that teaches the seven keys to successful communication

(e.g., “Choose words that help instead of hurt.”).

To Increase Expressive Language Skills • It is important to talk with the child as much as possible. • Extensions are quite powerful:

– Child: “Kitty!” – Adult: “Yes, there is a black kitty sitting on the sidewalk.”

• We add new grammatic and semantic information to the child’s utterances, for example:

– Child: “I see bus!” – Adult: “Yes, look at that big yellow bus going down the road.”

● Working with parents as little as once a week can provide benefits (Roberts & Kaiser, 2011). • Extensions are very useful; they can be easily taught to parents, and they increase children’s

morpho-syntactic skills.

Research Lovelace & Stewart (2009) • Children from low-SES backgrounds are often limited in experiences needed to build background

knowledge for vocabulary growth because individual choices and experiences provided to these children overall are more limited than for groups with greater economic resources…Because experiences are limited, the potential for gaining word knowledge from a variety of opportunities is predictably reduced for these children. These early differences in children’s vocabulary knowledge have shown that even a small disadvantage grows into a larger one and becomes difficult to ameliorate without intervention.

• It is important to build low-SES children’s conceptual bases and then move into oral and literate language from there.

Justice (2010) and Roseberry-McKibbin (2007, 2013) • Phonological awareness is the ability to consciously reflect on and manipulate the sound system of

a language. • It is foundational to success in reading, writing, and spelling. • Low-SES preschoolers especially need to develop phonological awareness skills.

Koutsoftas, Harmon, & Gray (2009) • The researchers studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in a response-to-

intervention (RtI) model in low-income preschool children. • Tier 1 instruction is high-quality, evidence-based classroom instruction. • Children who are not making adequate progress with this model are provided with Tier 2

intervention. Tier 2 intervention typically consists of short-term, high quality explicit instruction that is carried out in small groups by reading specialists, teachers, SLPs, and others.

 

 

• In this study, Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs. The intervention was successful for 71% of the children.

• The authors concluded that the intervention was efficient and effective. Ukrainetz, Ross, & Harm (2009) • The researchers studied schedules of phonemic awareness treatment for kindergarteners. • In one schedule, the students were seen three times a week from September through December. • In another schedule, children were seen once a week from September through March. • There were large, maintained gains for children seen in both schedules. • It was found that the gains made from short, intense treatment were similar to those made from

continuous weekly treatment.

Justice, Kaderavek, Fan, Sofka, & Hunt (2009) • The researchers studied accelerating low-SES preschoolers’ literacy development through

classroom-based teacher-child storybook reading and explicit print-referencing. • They found that children whose teachers used print-referencing strategies showed larger gains on

three standardized measures of print knowledge than children whose teachers did not use the strategies.

• Examples of print referencing strategies used by teachers include the following:

– “This M in the red block is an uppercase letter. See how this uppercase letter is different than these lowercase letters?”

– “This word is the. This word is in this book all the time—can you help me find it?”

Gillam (2011) • Some low-SES (some bilingual) parents were given wordless books to read with their children;