Write a 500- to 700-word magazine article that discusses visual imagery. Includethe following in your article:
Include at least three scholarly articles. Cite your work and references.
4
Mental Imagery
Try answering these two questions:
• How many windows are in your house? • How many nouns are in the American Pledge of Allegiance?
Most people who answer these questions have the same experience. For the first
question they imagine themselves walking around their house and counting windows.
For the second question, if they do not actually say the Pledge of Alliance out loud,
they imagine themselves saying the Pledge of Allegiance. In both cases they are creating
mental images of what they would have perceived had they actually walked around
the house or said the Pledge of Allegiance.
Use of visual imagery is particularly important. As a result of our primate heritage,
a large portion of our brain functions to process visual information. Therefore, we use
these brain structures as much as we can, even in the absence of a visual signal from
the outside world, by creating mental images in our heads. Some of humankind’s most
creative acts involve visual imagery. For instance, Einstein claimed he discovered the
theory of relativity by imagining himself traveling beside a beam of light.
A major debate in this field of research has been the degree to which the processes
behind visual imagery are the same as the perceptual and attentional processes that we
considered in the previous two chapters. Some researchers (e.g., Pylyshyn, 1973, in an
article sarcastically titled “What the mind’s eye tells the mind’s brain”) have argued that
the perceptual experience that we have while doing an activity such as picturing the
windows in our house is an epiphenomenon; that is, it is a mental experience that does
not have any functional role in information processing. The philosopher Daniel Dennett
(1969) also argued that mental images are epiphenomenal—that is, that the perceptual
components of mental images are not really functional in any way:
Consider the Tiger and his Stripes. I can dream, imagine or see a striped tiger, but
must the tiger I experience have a particular number of stripes? If seeing or imagining
is having a mental image, then the image of the tiger must—obeying the rules of
images in general—reveal a definite number of stripes showing, and one should be
able to pin this down with such questions as “more than ten?”, “less than twenty?”
(p. 136)
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Verbal Imagery versus Visual Imagery | 93
Dennett’s argument is that if we are actually seeing a tiger in a mental image, we
should be able to count its stripes just like we could if we actually saw a tiger.
Because we cannot count the stripes in a mental image of a tiger, we are not having
a real perceptual experience. This argument is not considered decisive, but it does
illustrate the discomfort some people have with the claim that mental images are
actually perceptual in character.
This chapter will review some of the experimental evidence showing the ways that
mental imagery does play a role in information processing. We will define mental
imagery broadly as the processing of perceptual-like information in the absence of an
external source for the perceptual information. We will consider the following questions: • How do we process the information in a mental image? • How is imaginal processing related to perceptual processing? • What brain areas are involved in mental imagery? • How do we develop mental images of our environment and use these
to navigate through the environment?
•Verbal Imagery versus Visual Imagery
There is increasing evidence from cognitive neuroscience that several different
brain regions are involved in imagery. This evidence has come both from studies
of patients suffering damage to various brain regions and from studies of the
brain activation of normal individuals as they engage in various imagery tasks.
In one of the early studies of brain activation patterns during imagery, Roland
and Friberg (1985) identified many of the brain regions that have been investigated
in subsequent research. They had participants either mentally rehearse a
word jingle or mentally rehearse finding their way around streets in their neighborhoods.
The investigators measured changes in blood flow in various parts of
the cortex. Figure 4.1 illustrates the principal areas they identified.When participants
engaged in the verbal jingle task, there was activation in the prefrontal cortex
near Broca’s area and in the parietal-temporal region of the posterior cortex
R
R
R
R
J
J
FIGURE 4.1 Results from
Roland and Friberg’s (1985)
study of brain activation
patterns during mental imagery.
Regions of the left cortex
showed increased blood flow
when participants imagined
a verbal jingle (J) or a spatial
route (R).
Brain Structures
Anderson7e_Chapter_04.qxd 8/20/09 9:42 AM Page 93
near Wernicke’s area. As discussed in Chapter 1, patients with damage to these
regions show deficits in language processing. When participants engaged in the
visual task, there was activation in the parietal cortex, occipital cortex, and temporal
cortex. All these areas are involved in visual perception and attention, as
we saw in Chapters 2 and 3.When people process imagery of language or visual
information, some of the same areas are active as when they process actual
speech or visual information.
An experiment by Santa (1977) demonstrated the functional consequence
of representing information in a visual image versus representing it in a verbal
image. The two conditions of Santa’s experiment are shown in Figure 4.2. In
the geometric condition (Figure 4.2a), participants studied an array of three
geometric objects, arranged with one object centered below the other two.
This array had a facelike property—without much effort, we can see eyes and a
mouth. After participants studied the array, it was removed, and they had to
hold the information in their minds. They were presented with one of several
different test arrays. The participants’ task was to verify that the test array contained
the same elements as the study array, although not necessarily in the same
94 | Mental Imagery
Study
array
arrays
Test
Test
arrays
Study
array
Identical,
same configuration
Same elements,
linear configuration
Different elements,
same configuration
Different elements,
linear configuration
Triangle Circle
Square
Triangle Circle
Square
Triangle Circle Square
Triangle Circle
Arrow
Triangle Circle Arrow
Identical,
same configuration
Same word,
linear configuration
Different words,
same configuration
Different words,
linear configuration
(a) Geometric condition
(b) Verbal condition
FIGURE 4.2 The procedure followed in Santa’s (1977) experiment demonstrating that visual
and verbal information is represented differently in mental images. Participants studied an initial
array of objects or words and then had to decide whether a test array contained the same
elements. Geometric shapes were used in (a), words for the shapes in (b).
Anderson7e_Chapter_04.qxd 8/20/09 9:42 AM Page 94
spatial configuration. Thus, participants should
have responded positively to the first two test
arrays and negatively to the last two. Santa was
interested in the contrast between the two positive
test arrays. The first was identical to the
study array (same-configuration condition). In
the second array, the elements were displayed
in a line (linear-configuration condition). Santa
predicted that participants would make a positive
identification more quickly in the first case,
where the configuration was identical—because,
he hypothesized, the mental image for the study
stimulus would preserve spatial information. The
results for the geometric condition are shown in
Figure 4.3. As you can see, Santa’s predictions were confirmed. Participants were
faster in their judgments when the geometric test array preserved the configuration
information in the study array.
The results from the geometric condition are more impressive when contrasted
with the results from the verbal condition, illustrated in Figure 4.2b.
Here, participants studied words arranged exactly as the objects in the geometric
condition were arranged. Because it involved words, however, the study stimulus
did not suggest a face or have any pictorial properties. Santa speculated that participants
would read the array left to right and top down and encode a verbal
image with the information. So, given the study array, participants would encode
it as “triangle, circle, square.” After they studied the initial array, one of the test
arrays was presented. Participants had to judge whether the words were identical.
All the test stimuli involved words, but otherwise they presented the same
possibilities as the test stimuli in the geometric condition. The two positive stimuli
exemplify the same-configuration condition and the linear-configuration
condition. Note that the order of words in the linear array was the same as it
was in the study stimulus. Santa predicted that, unlike the geometric condition,
because participants had encoded the words into a linearly ordered verbal image,
they would be fastest when the test array was linear. As Figure 4.3 illustrates,
his predictions were again confirmed.
Different parts of the brain are involved in verbal and visual imagery,
and they represent and process information differently.
•Visual Imagery
Most of the research on mental imagery has involved visual imagery, and this
will be the principal focus of this chapter. One function of mental imagery is to
anticipate how objects will look from different perspectives. People often have
the impression that they rotate objects mentally to achieve perspective. Roger
Shepard and his colleagues have been involved in a long series of experiments
Visual Imagery | 95
Geometric
Verbal
Reaction time (s)
1.25
1.15
Same
configuration
Linear
configuration
Softball Player Intervention With Dr. Kenneth Ravizza
Host Hi Kenneth, I understand we are about to meet a softball payer?
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Yes, this is a woman Alexa who I happen to who have done five sessions with the her team and our paths cross where she is coming at the locker room and we just have a discussion about some of the things going on for her at that time.
Host Okay, great let us go take a look.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Alright.
Alexa Hey Kenneth, what is up?
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Hey Alexa! How are you doing?
Alexa Good.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza What is been happening?
Alexa Not too much. I am on my way to practice.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza How has it been going?
Alexa It is going alright, it could be better.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Really, better in what way?
Alexa I do not know. I have been really nervous lately.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Really nervous, alright.
Alexa I do not know.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza That happens at times. What is being going on?
Alexa Well, like right before a game, I am worried that I am going to screw up so and it has been going on pretty constantly. I cannot get that out of my head.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza So it has been going on a while?
Alexa Yeah.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza What is being happening with your advance.?
Alexa Same thing. I get up there and even before I start sets before one deck, one double deck I am starting to worry that I am not going to make contact and I am not going to get on base so, I do not know.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Yeah, tell me have you ever had that happen before in your softball career?
Alexa Yeah, but you know this was…
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Did you get out of it?
Alexa Yeah.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza You got out of that funk.?
Alexa Yeah.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Alright. So you got in there and you got out of it.
Alexa This one is lasting longer.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza This is a little longer?
Alexa Yeah.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Ah, that will touch you little more, but you will be alright. Alright, tell me, when you are going in you said it is starting when you are in the hole, when you put on your hitting gloves
Alexa Yeah, when I put on my gloves and my helmet, sometimes it get started even before that, even when I am out on the field I could be thinking about it if I am going to be up.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Even in the outfield you are thinking about it?
Alexa Every once in a… yeah it starts to…
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Oh, alright. But one of the reasons why are you thinking about it Alexa is that it is important that we do not want to lose this and that is that you care about what you are doing and some of this nervousness you are feeling may not be nervousness as much of as it is excitement. You want to do well.
Alexa Yeah.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Okay, so that is there, but what we got do is we got to just curb it a little bit and just get it so that you can use that energy to your advantage instead of the energy using you. Okay? It is a one way to play with it.
Alexa Alright.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Hey, tell me though a little bit about when you step in there, when this things starts when you put on your hitting gloves, sometimes even before that, okay, that you put on your hitting gloves, put on your helmet, what goes on?
Alexa When I am on the deck I try not to think about it so I am trying to cheer for my teammate who is out and then when I actually get up to bat, I start thinking about trying to pick up the ball earlier and the first thing that comes in my head that I am not going to pick it up quick enough and it is… you know I am going to think it is great pitch and… so that is usually the first thing I am thinking about is and I get…
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza
When you are on deck, what are you looking at when you are looking at the pitcher?
Alexa I look at her release point.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Okay, you are looking at the hips seeing where the ball is coming out of the hip really locked into that. Great, okay. Now from on deck walking to the plate, what goes on?
Alexa Well, I am just… my mind starts racing about you know, what I have to do looking at coach, getting the signal and thinking about what the count is and whatever and trying to…
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Got to, got to, got to, got to get it hit, got to get it hit.
Alexa Yes.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Got to.
Alexa Can I get at this?
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza And everything tightens up.
Alexa Right.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Okay, a couple of things to play with. I want you to work on them and practice.
Alexa Okay.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Think about this number one – when you are down playing in defense, you come in, you become the offensive player. We got to separate offense from defense okay. So one way to do that when you take off your glove, put your glove down.
Alexa Okay.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Use it as a symbol that, that is the end of defense. When you put on the hitting glove you put on the… grab your bat you are putting on the hitter. So you are separating offense from defense.
Alexa Okay.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Same thing, when you go back to defense. Let us say you strike out, you have to remember in softball, you contribute like we talked about in the other sessions, you contribute with your bat, you contribute with your glove, you contribute with your base running, you contribute with your understanding at the game and most important that you can contribute with the way you support teammates. Five ways and there maybe others. Okay, but those are five ways, you are just not just a hitter, there are these other things you do. You got to keep that in prospective. When you are putting on that glove, you are putting on the hitter.
Alexa Okay.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Okay, almost view it like a final today, like you are getting in this final and you are gradually clicking in the concentration.
Alexa Okay.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Okay, and you have that routine that you go through. Any thoughts that come in, what you need to be attending to. When you are in the hole, you need to stretch, get loose, when you are on deck, you take your stride with the pitcher, picking up her hip, picking up the release point.
Alexa Right.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Right? Now, what something you can do when you step into the box. Show me what you do when you step into the batter’s box.
Alexa I usually just, I take the signal from coach.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza So, that is what we talked about, you got to have a plan and be committed to your plan.
Alexa Then I just usually, I step in and I get ready.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza But what I want you to do is to keep the thinking out side the box and when you step in, you are just… you are the hitter.
Alexa Okay.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza You are the hitter. It is you and pitcher and all of the attention goes on one thing would be your breathing. Take a good breath when you step in the box. Here, just try that and now even look at the label of the bat. Pick a spot on the label, just focus on that spot as you inhale and exhale and then you are going to get in the box. If you could see this spot there is a good chance you are going to see the release point. So really focus on the spot, good breath and then step in.
Alexa You want me to do that?
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Yeah.
Alexa Okay.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Let the breath go.
Alexa So, let it go before I get in?
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Yeah, before you get in so, then get in. then get in, boom and you are there.
Alexa Okay.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza So you got the breath and something to go to because if you can control that breath, it is a pretty good indicator that you are going to be in control of yourself.
Alexa Okay.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Then you got your release point that the energy is going out too and that is just something to play with today. If we can just increase, have you played with increasing the quality of the at bat. Do not worry about the hit, how are you seeing the ball? Are you making contact? Do not get hung up on the hits. That will come down the road.
Alexa Okay.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza This way you got to work the process in terms of getting it done.
Alexa Alright.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Alright, so a couple of simple things to play with.
Alexa Yeah.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Alright, so tell me from this, what you are going to take out to practice today and play with?
Alexa I think during batting practice, I will try to focus on doing that and try to keep my… like you said I will keep the thoughts out of the box.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza And to keep the thoughts out of the box you are going to do what?
Alexa Take my breath and focus on a spot. So what happens if they start coming back?
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Do not worry, we will talk about that tomorrow.
Alexa Okay.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza You take care.
Alexa Alright, thanks.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Alright, we will see you.
Host Well, that was great. Can you tell me how you think things went and as you started this?
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza I thought the interaction was very productive in terms of short and sweet and right to the point and trying to give her some things that she could take to the field that day out and start putting into application and play with and then we can come back and revisit it.
Host I noticed that you kept separating things like offense and defense and when you are up at bat, when you are in the field.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza I guess from my prospective one of the key things is when the athletes really performing at a high level, they are totally involved in the present moment. That is one thing from my work and peak experience that I really got out of that. How do you get to the here in now. In baseball and softball both, there is such a tendency to carry the last moment to the next moment and segmentation skills are important and the beautiful thing in softball is there are the symbols – the glove, the glove on is defense, the glove off is getting ready for putting the hitting gloves and grabbing the bat, so there is implements. This use of symbols for me and my work is also important, so there is an association that goes with the things where… now I am here, that is over, move on, next thing.
Host Sure. Can you say a little bit about having her take the deep breaths and then to stare at a point on the bat?
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza What the breath was about for her was just is she in control of herself? Before you are going to try controlling the performance you got to make sure that you are in control of you and if she could take that breath, it is a sign to her that at least I am doing something right and the idea of looking at the label on the bat is to get the attention and energy going up, because in softball, she has got to bring her attention to that release point that she was talking about of coming off the hip and she has got to be there. Well, before you are going to be there, let us practice having the energy out on the point on the bat because if they are internal, this is where all the fear, self-doubt, worries, all the craziness is in here, but there is a certain point where to heck with how you feel. The energy goes out and now you do battle. One thing I am always talking with athletes about is learning how to be comfortable with being uncomfortable.
Host Yeah.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza You may not feel great, but you deal with it.
Host I know early on you try the change the meaning for her about a couple of other things that happened.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Yeah, especially with the nervousness and excitement and trying to give her a different perspective or re-framing it a little differently and also having her go back to… has this ever happened before? I learned that from a ball player who once told me that, one of the things that is important when an athlete is slumping is to realize you have gotten out of it before. Yeah, I can get out of this. That helps with the confidence level in terms of battling out of it.
Host Thanks a lot that was a great show.
Dr. Kenneth Ravizza Alright, great. Thank you.
Host Okay.
Stem cells are the basis for every organ and tissue in our bodies. We continually rely on stem cells to replace and rejuvenate tissues lost every day, such as hair, blood, and skin. Currently researchers in this exciting field are working with patients suffering from a host of diseases and conditions that do not respond well to other therapies. These experimental procedures are termed “clinical trials” and are used to begin the study of how the human body responds to stem cell treatment. Early research is often done with laboratory animals, but success with animals does not always translate well into that same level of success with humans. Further research must be done to test both the safety and efficacy of the treatment for human patients before the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) can approve the therapy.
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