What are the similarities and differences between the different elements?

/in /by

The assignment for this module will ask you to demonstrate higher-order thinking as it applies to adult learning theory. Please do the following presented in a complete narrative posted to the Discussion. Draw appropriately from the class sources and use appropriate APA citations. Use headings to organize your main points. The overall purpose here is to think critically about the elements of adult learning. You will notice from the following that you integrate elements of application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and creation.

Instructions

  1. After reviewing the chapters on theories of adult learning (Merriam and Baumgartner chapters 5 and 16), and this module’s readings on self-directed learning, experience, adult development, and brain/memory/cognitive, judge what you conclude to be the most important concepts from each of those topics—make sure to address each of the concepts listed. Why do you come to that conclusion—that is provide valid rationale?
  2. You were introduced to some enduring theories of adult learning. If you were constructing a theory of adult learning, what would you change, add or delete? Determining how adults learn, how would you design the perfect theory of how adults learn?
  3. Of the elements of adult learning theory presented in the readings, do you identify any underlying themes? What are the similarities and differences between the different elements? Of the elements of adult learning under our control (we can’t change much about brain changes, for instance) what advice would you give to make adult learning the richest experience?
  4. Project to your own teaching demonstration and explain how you will apply elements of adult learning to that teaching demonstration.-My Teaching Demonstration is Sexual Abuse.

Define the problem emotionally and intellectually

/in /by

Prior to beginning work on this discussion, please review the following websites, and read the following required articles:

  • Ethical Decision Making
  • The Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
  • ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors
  • To Tell or Not to Tell: The Fine Line Between Minors’ Privacy and Others’ Right to Know

Play the expert in the following scenario and apply ethical decision-making to your rationale and actions. Be mindful of section F in the “ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors” (p. 8):

When faced with an ethical dilemma, school counselors and school counseling program directors/supervisors use an ethical decision-making model such as Solutions to Ethical Problems in Schools (STEPS) (Stone, 2001):

  • Define the problem emotionally and intellectually
  • Apply the ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors and the law
  • Consider the students’ chronological and developmental levels
  • Consider the setting, parental rights and minors’ rights
  • Apply the ethical principles of beneficence, autonomy, nonmaleficence, loyalty and justice
  • Determine potential courses of action and their consequences
  • Evaluate the selected action
  • Consult
  • Implement the course of action

You are a school counselor at a rural high school. You have been counseling a student, and he confided in you that one of his friends has recently engaged in sexual relations with one of the teacher’s daughters. (She is a friend of yours.) He does not divulge the name of the other student and refuses to talk any further about the issue.

Address the following:

  1. What ethical considerations must be considered in this situation?
  2. How does confidentiality affect your considerations and actions?
  3. What options might you have to address the situation?
  4. Ethically, since this is hearsay, are you legally obligated to address?
  5. Using appropriate citations and references, explain how the empirical research, theoretical models, and ethical standards presented in the assigned resources suggest the importance of applying ethical decision-making strategies to scenarios such as these.

REFERENCES

https://serc.carleton.edu/geoethics/Decision-Making

Meiseller, D. (2020). Difference between deductive and inductive reasoning. https://danielmiessler.com/blog/the-difference-between-deductive-and-inductive-reasoning/

ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors. (2016). https://www.schoolcounselor.org/getmedia/f041cbd0-7004-47a5-ba01-3a5d657c6743/Ethical-Standards.pdf

Carlson, N. (2017). To tell or not to tell: The fine line between minors’ privacy and others’ right to know (Links to an external site.). https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=2ahUKEwiwuLC7-73pAhVVj54KHSMQAWcQFjABegQIDBAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.counseling.org%2Fdocs%2Fdefault-source%2Fethics%2Fethics-columns%2Fethics_october-2017_minor-privacy.pdf%3Fsfvrsn%3Da25522c_6&usg=AOvVaw0kYOxrz1puzlnuMbSY9THu

Skip to Main ContentSkip to Navigation

Ethical Decision-Making In this module, we provide some guiding principles, and pathways to help guide ethical decision-making. These are a series of basic questions that should be asked when confronted with ethical dilemmas. These are often complex situations with no clear-cut resolution, and without a right or wrong answer. But these decision-making processes will go a long way towards helping all of us make informed decisions that can justify consequent actions.

Ethical Reasoning Can Be Taught: Ethical reasoning is a way of thinking about issues of right and wrong. Processes of reasoning can be taught, and school is an appropriate place to teach them. the reason that, although parents and religious schools may teach ethics, they don ot always teach ethical reasoning. See the article by: Sternberg, Robert J. Teaching for Ethical Reasoning in Liberal Education. Liberal Education 96.3 (2010): 32-37.

And, like learning to play baseball or play the violin, it’s important to practice early and often. So, let’s get started:

Beneficence

Beneficence is the concept that scientific research should have as a goal the welfare of society. It is rooted in medical research, the central tenet is “do no harm” (and corollaries remove harm, prevent harm, optimize benefits, “do good”). For a more expansive introduction to beneficence, see the essay on The Principles of Beneficence in Applied Ethics from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Some simple guiding questions in applying the concept of beneficence to ethical dilemmas include:

Who benefits? Who are the stakeholders? Who are the decision-makers? Who is impacted? What are the risks?

Take a look at the video on Causing Harm–“Causing harm explores the different types of harm that may be caused to people or groups and the potential reasons we may have for justifying these harms.” From “Ethics Unwrapped”, McCombs School of Business, University of Texas-Austin.

A 7-STep Guide to Ethical Decision-Making

The following is a summary of: Seven-step guide to ethical decision-making (Davis, M. (1999) Ethics and the university, New York: Routledge, p. 166-167.

1. State the problem. For example, “there’s something about this decision that makes me uncomfortable” or “do I have a conflict of interest?”.

2. Check the facts. Many problems disappear upon closer examination of the situation, while others change radically. For example, persons involved, laws, professional codes, other practical constraints

3. Identify relevant factors (internal and external). 4. Develop a list of options.

Be imaginative, try to avoid “dilemma”; not “yes” or” no” but whom to go to, what to say. 5. Test the options. Use some of the following tests:

harm test: Does this option do less harm than the alternatives? publicity test: Would I want my choice of this option published in the newspaper? defensibility test: Could I defend my choice of this option before a congressional committee or committee of peers? reversibility test: Would I still think this option was a good choice if I were adversely affected by it? colleague test: What do my colleagues say when I describe my problem and suggest this option as my solution? professional test: What might my profession’s governing body for ethics say about this option? organization test: What does my company’s ethics officer or legal counsel say about this?

6. Make a choice based on steps 1-5. 7. Review steps 1-6. How can you reduce the likelihood that you will need to make a similar decision again?

Are there any cautions you can take as an individual (and announce your policy on question, job change, etc.)? Is there any way to have more support next time? Is there any way to change the organization (for example, suggest policy change at next departmental meeting)?

[Having made a decision based on the process above, are you now prepared to ACT?]

 

 

Ethical Decision-Making Model based on work by Shaun Taylor.

A Seven Step Process for Making Ethical Decisions–An example from the “Orientation to Energy and Sustainability Policy” course at Penn State.

Additional Approaches to Ethical Decision Making

Shaun Taylor’s presentation: Geoethics Forums (PowerPoint 2007 (.pptx) 380kB Jun11 14), given at the 2014 Teaching GeoEthics workshop, provided a simple model to help students engage Ethical Decision-Making that includes a) the context/facts of the situation, b) the stakeholders, c) the decision-makers, d) these inform a number of alternate choices, e) that are mediated through the evaluation of impacts and negotiations among the parties, that lead to f) selection of an optimal choice. Taylor provides guidance for what makes a good ethical dilemma discussion, including:

Trust, respect, disagreement without personal attacks Being judgmental vs. making a judgment Emphasize process vs. conclusion Uncertainty is OK Description then prescription

Teaching Activity: GeoEthics Forums–The Grey Side of Green (a guide for ethics decision making)

Daniel Vallero also addressed ethical decision making in his presentation at the 2014 Teaching GeoEthics workshop, and defines this 6-step approach to ethical decision making:

1. State or define the problem/issue 2. Gather information (“facts”) from all sides 3. Delineate all possible resolutions. 4. Apply different values, rules, principles, regulations to the different options. 5. Resolve conflicts among values, rules, etc. 6. Make a decision and act.

The Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, Santa Clara University provides additional context and advice for ethical decision- making. They have identified five sources of ethical standards (the utilitarian approach, the rights approach, the fairness or justice approach, the common good approach, and the virtue approach.Their framework for Ethical Decision making includes: Recognize the Ethical Issue, Get the Facts, Evaluate Alternative Actions, Make a Decision and Test it, Act and Reflect on the Outcome.

Reviews of the literature on ethical decision-making can be found at:

O’Fallon, M.J., and Butterfield, K.D., 2005, A Review of the Empirical Ethical Decision-Making Literature: 1996-2003, Journal of Business Ethics vol 59 #4, p. 375-413; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-005-2929-7 Robert C. Ford and Woodrow D. Richardson (2013) Ethical Decision Making: A Review of the Empirical Literature, In: Michalos A., Poff D. (eds) Citation Classics from the Journal of Business Ethics. Advances in Business Ethics Research (A Journal of Business Ethics Book Series), vol 2. Springer, Dordrecht Cottone, R. R. and Claus, R. E. (2000), Ethical Decisionâ€Making Models: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Counseling & Development, 78: 275-283. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb01908.x

The American Counseling Association has published their A Practitioner’s Guide to Ethical Decision Making (Acrobat (PDF) 20kB Jun18 18) (1995) authored by Holly Forester-Miller, Ph.D. and Thomas Davis, Ph.D.

Assessment of Ethical Reasoning, Values, Moral Thinking

Assessment–Measuring Students’ Moral Development — from the Illinois Institute of Technology, Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions (suggestions on types of graded assignments, advice on grading assignments, assessment of program effectiveness, and a bibliography) Assessment and Evaluation — from the National Academy of Engineering, Online Ethics Center for Engineering and Science; — recommended criteria and rubrics for assessing student learning and an annotated bibliography! Ethical Reasoning Value Rubric — from the Association of American Colleges and Universities Ethics Assessment Rubric — from the University of Minnesota-Duluth, School of Business Ethical Reasoning in Action: Validity Evidence for the Ethical Reasoning Identification Test (ERIT)–Smith, K., Fulcher, K. & Sanchez, E.H. J Bus Ethics (2015). doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2841-8

 

 

Carpenter, D. D., Harding, T. S., Finelli, C. J., & Passow, H. J. (2004). Does academic dishonesty relate to unethical behavior in professional practice? An exploratory study. Science and Engineering Ethics, 10(2), 311—324.

Ethics and Environmental Justice resources from across Teach the Earth »

Ethics and Environmental Justice resources from across Teach the Earth »

Social Cognitive Theory

/in /by

Chapter 13

SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY: APPLICATIONS, RELATED THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS, AND CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH

1

© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This presentation may be used and adapted for use in classes using the fourteenth edition of Personality. It may not be re-distributed except to students enrolled in such classes and in such case must be password protected to limit access to students enrolled in such classes. Students may not re-distribute portions of the original presentation.

 

QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER

How do knowledge structures – especially cognitive “schemas” – contribute to personality functioning and help to explain individual differences?

How do personal goals and standards of self-evaluation differ from one person to another, and how do these differences relate to motivation and emotional life?

What is the role of self-efficacy beliefs and other self-referent thinking processes in psychological disorders and therapeutic change?

What are some scientific challenges that were not addressed in the original formulations of social-cognitive theory and how have they been addressed by contemporary developments in personality theory?

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

BELIEFS ABOUT THE SELF AND SELF-SCHEMAS

Schemas: knowledge structures that guide and organize the processing of info

Example: new song on the radio sounds structured because one has acquired schemas for song structures

Schemas guide one’s interpretation of the sounds that comprise the song

Music from a different culture might sound chaotic!

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

BELIEFS ABOUT THE SELF AND SELF-SCHEMAS

Markus (1977) : many of our most important schemas concern ourselves

People form cognitive generalizations about the self just as they do about other things

Different people develop different self-schemas

Self-schemas may account for the relatively unique ways in which idiosyncratic individuals think about the world around them

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

BELIEFS ABOUT THE SELF AND SELF-SCHEMAS

Self-Schemas and Reaction-Time Methods

Reaction-time measures: experimental methods in which an experimenter records not only the content of a person’s response, but also how long it takes the person to respond

People who possess a self-schema with regard to a given domain of social life should be faster in responding to questions regarding that life domain

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

BELIEFS ABOUT THE SELF AND SELF-SCHEMAS

Self-Schemas and Reaction-Time Methods

Markus (1977) identified people who possessed a self-schema regarding independence

Participants rated themselves as high or low on independence

Participants indicated the degree to which the personality characteristic was important to them

Those who had an extreme high or low self-rating and thought independence/dependence was important were judged as schematic

Participants then asked to rate whether a series of adjectives (some of which were semantically related to independence/dependence) were descriptive of themselves

Schematics made these judgments faster

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

BELIEFS ABOUT THE SELF AND SELF-SCHEMAS

Self-Schemas and Reaction-Time Methods

Andersen and Cyranowski (1994): women with differing sexual self-schemas would process interpersonal information differently and function differently in their sexual and romantic relationships

Women asked to rate themselves on a list of 50 adjectives, 26 of which were used to form a Sexual Self-Schema Scale (e.g., uninhibited, loving)

Asked to respond to measures that asked about sexual experiences and romantic involvement

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

BELIEFS ABOUT THE SELF AND SELF-SCHEMAS

Self-Schemas and Reaction-Time Methods

Andersen and Cyranowski found that women with high scores on the Sexual Self-Schema Scale (particularly those with positive sexual self-schemas)

Were more sexually active

Experienced greater sexual arousal and sexual pleasure

Were more able to be involved in romantic love relationships

“Co-schematics (women who had both positive and negative schemas)” found to experience

High levels of involvement with sexual partners

High levels of sexual anxiety

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

BELIEFS ABOUT THE SELF AND SELF-SCHEMAS

Self-Schemas and Reaction-Time Methods

People tend to live complex lives in which they develop a number of different self-schemas

Different situations may cause different self-schemas to be part of the working self-concept: the subset of self-concept that is in working memory at any given time

Info about the self that is in consciousness, and guides behavior, at any given time changes dynamically as people interact with the ever-changing events of the social world

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

BELIEFS ABOUT THE SELF AND SELF-SCHEMAS

Self-Based Motives and Motivated Information Processing

Self-schemas motivate people to process information in particular ways

People often are biased toward positive views of the self, which can be explained by positing a self-enhancement motive

People also may be motivated to experience themselves as being consistent and predictable, reflecting a self-verification motive

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

BELIEFS ABOUT THE SELF AND SELF-SCHEMAS

Self-Based Motives and Motivated Information Processing

What happens when the two motives conflict?

Evidence suggests we generally prefer positive feedback but prefer negative feedback in relation to negative self-views

Positive life events can be bad for one’s health if they conflict with a negative self-concept and disrupt one’s negative identity

There are individual differences in this regard

We may be more oriented toward self-enhancement in some relationships and self-verification in other relationships

CURRENT APPLICATIONS

SELF-SCHEMAS AND HISTORY OF SEXUAL ABUSE

Meston, Rellini, and Heiman (2006) hypothesized that abuse experiences may alter self-schemas and do so in a long-lasting manner

Conducted a study whose participants were 48 women with a history of child sexual abuse

Also studied a group of 71 women who had not suffered from abuse experiences and who thus served as control participants.

To measure sexual self-schemas, Meston et al. administered the sexual self-schema scale in which people report on their perceptions of their own sexuality

Women with a history of abuse believed themselves to be less romantic and passionate; that is, they had lower scores on the romantic/passionate items of the sexual self-schema measure

Women who had experienced abuse years earlier had more negative emotional experiences in the present day

Women with lower romantic/passionate self-schemas reported more negative emotional experiences

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

LEARNING VERSUS PERFORMANCE GOALS

Different goals may lead to different patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior

Goals may be the cause of what one would interpret as different personality styles

Two ways of thinking about goals:

Learning goal: think about the task and all you can learn from it

Peformance goal: have the aim of

showing people how smart you are

avoiding embarrassment when you don’t know something

making a good impression

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

LEARNING VERSUS PERFORMANCE GOALS

Elliott and Dweck (1988) induced learning versus performance goals among grade school students performing a cognitive task

Some told that they were performing a task that would sharpen mental skills

Others told they were performing a task that would be evaluated by experts

Students’ beliefs in their ability on the task (i.e., their efficacy beliefs) were also manipulated

People who had a combination of performance goals and low beliefs in their ability were less likely than others to develop useful strategies on the task

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

LEARNING VERSUS PERFORMANCE GOALS

Elliott and Dweck (1988) recorded the degree to which people spontaneously expressed negative emotions while working on the task

Performance goal participants expressed much tension and anxiety when performing the task

“My stomach hurts” (Elliott & Dweck, 1988, p. 10)

Performance goals provides insight into what we commonly call “test anxiety”

Dweck’s social-cognitive analysis suggests that one might intervene by trying to change people’s patterns of thinking

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

LEARNING VERSUS PERFORMANCE GOALS

Causes of Learning versus Performance Goals: Implicit Theories

Implicit theories: those we possess, that guide our thinking, but that we may not usually state in words

Implicit theories of interest to Dweck and colleagues: whether or not psychological attributes are changeable

Entity theory: a particular characteristic or trait is viewed as fixed

Incremental theory: a particular characteristic or trait is believed to be malleable or open to change

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

LEARNING VERSUS PERFORMANCE GOALS

Causes of Learning versus Performance Goals: Implicit Theories

Children with an entity view of intelligence tend to set performance goals

If intelligence is fixed, then one interprets activities as a “performance” in which intelligence is evaluated

Children with an incremental view of intelligence tend to set learning goals

If intelligence can be increased, then natural to set the learning goal of acquiring experiences that increase it

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

LEARNING VERSUS PERFORMANCE GOALS

Causes of Learning versus Performance Goals: Implicit Theories

Tamir, John, Srivastava, and Gross, 2007 study

Students about to enter college were tested about whether they believed emotions to be malleable and controllable vs. fixed and uncontrollable

As hypothesized, students with incremental (malleable) beliefs concerning emotion showed better emotion regulation than did those with entity (fixed) beliefs

Throughout the first term, relative to those with entity beliefs concerning emotion, those with incremental beliefs received increasing social support from new friends

By the end of the freshman year, those with incremental beliefs were found to have more positive moods and generally better levels of adjustment than those with entity beliefs

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

LEARNING VERSUS PERFORMANCE GOALS

Causes of Learning versus Performance Goals: Implicit Theories

Blackwell, Trzesniewski, and Dweck (2007): If one could turn entity theorists into incremental theorists, one should be able to reduce test anxiety and boost performance

Enrolled 7th-graders in an educational intervention designed to induce an incremental theory of intelligence

Students learned that the human brain changes when people study, growing new connections among neurons that increase a person’s mental abilities (a separate group did not receive this instruction)

By the end of the year, students who had been exposed to the intervention began to outperform the other students

Personality and the Brain: Goals

Are goals and evaluative standards distinct biologically from other kinds of thoughts?

D’Argembeau et al. (2009) asked participants to imagine future outcomes that either were or were not personal goals for them

(e.g., Future doctors imagined becoming a doctor and going deep-sea fishing)

Participants were in a brain scanner while imagining these two types of outcomes.

Personality and the Brain: Goals

D’Argembeau et al. (2009), cont’d.

Two brain regions were more active when people thought about personal goals than about future activities that were not goals for them

Medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC)

Posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)

Why significant?

Personality and the Brain: Goals

D’Argembeau et al. (2009), cont’d.

The MPFC is needed to determine the self-relevance of events

The PCC has been shown to be active during autobiographical memory

Goals are psychologically rich mental contents that combine the detection of personally relevant occurrences in the environment with information stored in your “library” of autobiographical memories

 

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

STANDARDS OF EVALUATION

Goals and standards are psychologically distinct mechanisms

Goals are aims one hopes to achieve in the future

Standards are criteria used to evaluate events in the present

Just as it is valuable to distinguish among qualitatively different types of goals, it is valuable to distinguish among qualitatively different types of evaluative standards

Tory Higgins (1987, 1990, 2006) has expanded the scope of social-cognitive analyses of personality by showing how different types of evaluative standards relate to different types of emotional experiences and motivation

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

STANDARDS OF EVALUATION

Self-Standards, Self-Discrepancies, Emotion and Motivation

Some evaluative standards represent achievement that people ideally would like to reach: ideal standards; aspects of the “ideal self”

Some self-guides represent standards of achievement that people feel they should or ought to achieve: ought standards; elements of the “ought self”

Different individuals may evaluate the same type of behavior using different standards

Some wish to quit smoking because they ideally would like to be more healthy

Others primarily feel a sense of responsibility to others to quit smoking

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

STANDARDS OF EVALUATION

Self-Standards, Self-Discrepancies, Emotion and Motivation

People experience negative emotions when they detect a discrepancy between how things really are going for them—or their “actual self”—and a personal standard

Discrepancies with different standards trigger different emotions

Between actual and ideal self: sadness or dejection

Between actual and ought self: agitation and anxiety

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

STANDARDS OF EVALUATION

Self-Standards, Self-Discrepancies, Emotion and Motivation

Higgins, Bond, Klein, & Strauman (1986) identified two groups:

Those who predominantly have actual/ideal discrepancies

Those who predominantly have actual/ought discrepancies

In a subsequent session, emotional reactions were assessed as they envisioned themselves experiencing a negative life event

Although all participants envisioned the same event:

Those who had mostly actual/ideal discrepancies tended to become sad but not anxious

Those who had mostly actual/ought discrepancies became anxious but not sad

COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS

STANDARDS OF EVALUATION

Self-Standards, Self-Discrepancies, Emotion and Motivation

Higgins (2006): people’s evaluative standards have implications for motivation

People who evaluate their actions primarily through ideal standards

Tend to have a “promotion” approach

Are motivated toward promoting well-being, by focusing on positive outcomes

People who evaluate their actions primarily through ideal standards

Tends to be “prevention-focused”

Are focused on preventing the occurrence of (or gaining an absence of) negative outcomes

CURRENT QUESTIONS

PERFECTIONISTIC STANDARDS: GOOD OR BAD?

High standards may cause people to excel. But are extremely high, perfectionistic standards necessarily a good thing?

A researcher tests whether smoking by parents influences children’s attitudes toward smoking behavior.

/in /by

Assessment 1 – Basics of Research and Statistics, Frequency Distributions, Percentiles, and Graphical Representations

Complete the following problems within this Word document. Do not submit other files. Show your work for problem sets that require calculations. Ensure that your answer to each problem is clearly visible. You may want to highlight your answer or use a different type color to set it apart.

Problem Set 1.1: Identifying Variables (Dependent, Independent, Quasi-Independent)

Criterion: Identify dependent and independent variables.

Instructions: For the following list of examples, identify the dependent variable and independent (or quasi-independent) variable.

1. A researcher tests whether cocaine use increases impulsive behavior in a sample of cocaine-dependent and cocaine-inexperienced mice.

Independent Variable: ________

Quasi-Independent Variable: ________

Dependent Variable: ________

2. A professor tests whether students perform better on a multiple-choice or fill-in-the-blank test format.

Independent Variable: ________

Quasi-Independent Variable: ________

Dependent Variable: ________

3. A researcher tests whether smoking by parents influences children’s attitudes toward smoking behavior.

Independent Variable: ________

Quasi-Independent Variable: ________

Dependent Variable: ________

4. A social scientist tests whether attitudes toward morality differ based on political affiliation (Democrat or Republican).

Independent Variable: ________

Quasi-Independent Variable: ________

Dependent Variable: ________

5. A cultural researcher tests whether individuals from different cultures share or differ in the belief that dreams have meaning.

 

Independent Variable: ________

Quasi-Independent Variable: ________

Dependent Variable: ________

Problem Set 1.2: Understanding Sample and Population

Criterion: Describe the relationship between population and sample.

Instructions: Read the following and answer the question.

Height and educational attainment: Szklarska, Koziel, Bielicki, and Malina (2007) hypothesized that taller young men are more likely to move up the scale of educational attainment compared with shorter individuals from the same social background. They recruited 91,373 nineteen-year-old men to participate in the study.

Do these participants most likely represent a sample or population? Explain.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Problem Set 1.3: SPSS Enter Data

Criterion: Enter and display data in SPSS.

Instructions: Use the supplied data to complete Steps 1–8.

Data: Five social media users spent the following number of minutes viewing Twitter:
15.21, 46.18, 12.45, 65.486, 26.852.

Steps:

1. Open SPSS.

2. Click New DataSet in the New Files area and then click Open.

3. Click the Variable View tab at the bottom.

4. In the cell under Name, type Minutes.

5. The variable of Minutes is continuous. In the Decimals column, type 2.

6. Click on the Data View tab at the bottom of the screen.

7. Enter data in the column labeled Minutes.

8. Take a screenshot of your data in SPSS and paste it below.

 

Problem Set 1.4.a: Grouped or Ungrouped

Criterion: Explain the identification of types of data.

Instruction: Fill in the table below. For each example, state whether it is grouped or ungrouped and why.

 

Example

Grouped or Ungrouped

Why

 

The time (in seconds) it takes 100   children to complete a cognitive skills game.

 

The number of single mothers with 1,   2, 3, or 4 children.

 

The number of teenagers who have   experimented with smoking (yes, no).

 

The age (in years) of freshman   students in a local college.

Problem Set 1.4.b: Understanding Descriptive and Interferential Statistics

Criterion: Explain the identification of types of data.

Instructions: Read the following and answer the question.

Gun ownership in the United States: Data from Gallup polls over a 40-year period show how gun ownership in the United States has changed. The results are described in the table below, with the percentage of Americans who own guns given in each of 5 decades:

 

Year

%

 

1972

43

 

1982

42

 

1992

48

 

2002

40

 

2012

43

Source: Reported at http://www.gallup.com/poll/1645/Guns.aspx

1. Are the percentages reported here an example of descriptive statistics or interferential statistics? _____________________________________________________________

2. Based on the percentages given in the table, how has gun ownership in the United States changed over the past 40 years? ______________________________________________________________________

Problem Set 1.5: Reading a Chart

Criterion: Locate data on a chart.

Instructions: Read the following and answer the questions.

 

Participant Characteristics

Count

 

Type

Token

 

Sex

 

Women

Men

Unknown

24,541

23,617

479

878,261

751,188

927

 

Total

1,630,376

  1. Do men or      women in this sample speak more words overall (Token Count)?      _______________
  2. Do men or      women in this sample speak more different words (Type Count)?      _______________
Problem Set 1.6: Frequencies and Percents

Criterion: Identify frequencies and percents.

Instructions: State whether a cumulative frequency, relative frequency, relative percent, cumulative relative frequency, or cumulative percent is most appropriate for describing the following situations. For cumulative distributions, indicate whether these should be summarized from the top down or from the bottom up.

Data: 

1. The frequency of businesses with at least 20 employees: ____________

2. The frequency of college students with less than a 3.0 GPA: ____________

3. The percentage of women completing 1, 2, 3, or 4 tasks simultaneously: ____________

4. The proportion of pregnancies performed in public or private hospitals: ____________

5. The percentage of alcoholics with more than 2 years of substance abuse: ____________

Problem Set 1.7: Understanding Percentages

Criterion: Identify distribution type and number of people.

Instructions: Read the following and answer the questions.

Perceptions of same-sex marriage: In June 2016, a CBS News poll asked a sample of adults worldwide whether it should be legal or not legal for same-sex couples to marry (reported at http://www.pollingreport.com). The opinions of adults worldwide were as follows: 58%, legal; 33%, not legal; and 9%, unsure/no answer.

1. What type of distribution is this? __________________________

2. Knowing that 1,280 adults were polled nationwide, how many Americans polled felt that same-sex couples should be allowed to legally marry? __________________________

Problem Set 1.8: Create an Ascending Frequency Table in SPSS

Criterion: Create an ascending frequency table in SPSS.

Instructions: Complete the following steps.

Data: The number of clicks per hour in forty different tweets: 1, 0, 8, 5, 2, 1, 8, 2, 0, 2, 6, 8, 7, 2, 0, 2, 7, 4, 6, 9, 3, 2, 9, 6, 9, 7, 5, 8, 8, 8, 9, 6, 5, 4, 8, 4, 5, 8, 5, 7

1. Open SPSS.

2. Click New Dataset in the New Files area and then click Open.

3. Click on the Variable View tab.

4. In the cell under Name, type Clicks.

5. The variable of Clicks is discrete, so enter 0 in the Decimals column.

6. Click on the Data View tab at the bottom of the screen.

 

1. Enter all 40 numbers from from the dataset of number of clicks per hour in the column labeled Clicks.

2. In the Toolbar, click Analyze, select Descriptive Statistics, and then select Frequencies.

3. Select Clicks and then click Arrow to send it over to the right side of the table.

4. Click OK. Copy and paste the ascending values frequency table into the Word document.

5. Go back to Data View, click Analyze, select Descriptive Statistics, and then select Frequencies.

Note: Your answers to this problem set should be two separate SPSS outputs. Save your Clicks data to use in the next two problems.

Problem Set 1.9: Construct a Bar Graph in SPSS

Criterion: Construct a bar graph in SPSS.

Instructions: The Clicks data from Problem Set 1.10 is discrete. Complete the following steps to create a bar chart to examine the data:

1. Go back to your SPSS Statistics Data Editor where your Clicks data should be displayed.

2. In the Toolbar, click Graphs, select Legacy Dialogs, and then select Bar.

3. Click Simple, then select Define. Select Clicks and then click Arrow to send it over to the Category Axis box.

4. Click OK. Copy and paste the bar graph below. (Hint: You might need to use Copy Special and click the .jpeg option.)

5. Optional to answer: What is the shape of the distribution?

Problem Set 1.10: Construct a Pie Chart in SPSS

Criterion: Construct a pie chart in SPSS.

Instructions: Complete the following steps to create a pie chart to examine the attendance data from Problem Set 1.10.

1. Go back to your SPSS Statistics Data Editor where your clicks data should be displayed.

2. Select Data View, click Graphs, select Legacy Dialogs, and then select Pie.

3. Click Summaries for groups of case and then select Define. Select Clicks and then click Arrow to send it over to the Define Slices By box.

4. Click OK. Copy and paste the pie graph below.