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Individualized Knowledge Construction
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
· Explain the fundamental ideologies of constructivism.
· Describe social constructivism and this perspective’s views of learning.
· Compare and contrast situated cognition and the foundational ideas of cognitivism.
· Explain the premise and variables associated with sociocultural theory.
· Discuss how problem-based learning supports constructivist-based learning theories.
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Introduction
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Introduction
Have you ever:
· considered how your culture, social, and physical interactions affect how and what you assign meaning to?
· learned a skill or professional role under the guidance of a more experienced peer?
· desired to learn in a more self-directed, meaningful way?
The material in this chapter will address an area of learning theory that consists of constructivist-based principles, which we can use to help understand the significance of these types of questions. Foundationally, constructivism is a theory that supports the view that humans learn by connecting new information to their existing knowledge and that the knowledge is individualized, personalized, and reflective of one’s own perception of the information learned. For example, as you learn more about the field of psychology, the knowledge that you gain will be built (constructed) upon your previous understanding. Your understanding, in essence, is shaped by your initial perceptions about psychology, which may differ from another person’s perception of psychology. Thus, someone who considers how a concept could be applied only in psychological counseling may have more difficulty understanding how the same concept applies in other areas, such as organizational or educational psychology. Additional theories have been developed based on the foundations of constructivism. Social constructivism, situated cognition, and sociocultural theory (SCT) are some of the other theories based on constructivism, and they will be considered in this chapter.
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An aspect of constructivist thought is the idea of learning that builds upon previous understanding and knowledge.
Constructivist-based theories suggest that one’s environment plays a role in meaningful learning, as do socially oriented cognitive theories (discussed in Chapter 4). Constructivist theories, however, also suggest that learners are not just passive receivers of information but are active participants in their knowledge development, and this idea is a key component of the theories that support the perspective of individualized knowledge construction.
As mentioned in earlier chapters, theoretical propositions are not always accepted by all learning theorists. Constructivism, and the theories based on its foundations, is no exception. The notion that a learner’s knowledge is personalized is controversial because the assumptions of constructivism are difficult to prove or disprove (Phillips, 2000); it is considered by some as a subjective notion. Specifically, logical positivism, which is based on a perspective that argues that problems should be answered only through empirical research, suggests that constructivism, whether as a theory or a pedagogical strategy, is ideological—that it lacks solid findings obtained through controlled observation or experimentation (Gross & Levitt, 1994; Matthews, 1992). Researchers aligned with other theoretical frameworks (e.g., behaviorism or cognitivism) also have suggested that the notion of individualized knowledge construction through discovery learning (drawing from one’s personal experiences to discover information) is a reflection of the values within education that were popular in the mid-20th century, such as child-centered instruction (Zhenlin, 2009), rather than a viable learning theory.
Additionally, cognitive theory suggests that the instructor or counselor is the crucial part of successful knowledge acquisition, and that discovery learning (a foundational proponent of constructivism) would be far too unstructured for effective knowledge development (Bulgren, Deshler, & Schumaker, 1997; Rosenshine, 1997). Yet, research has suggested that these arguments regarding the role of the instructor and discovery are not entirely accurate ones because constructivist ideas have proven to be effective in applied settings, such as the classroom (Brooks & Brooks, 1999) and in instructional design. Thus, you should continue to use critical thinking while evaluating the information included in this chapter and come to your own conclusions about the perspectives of constructivist-based theories.
The concepts and perspectives presented in this chapter align with the view that individuals are active participants in the process of learning—that knowledge, and thus reality, is unique and personalized to each individual. The readings and areas of theory have been chosen to help support your understanding of the different frameworks that can be applied to discussions about knowledge construction:
· Sections 5.1 and 5.2 will help you establish an understanding of the core elements of constructivism and social constructivism and how the concepts associated with these perspectives support the belief that learners are participants in the knowledge acquisition process.
· Section 5.3 presents a cognitivist view that acknowledges the situational effects on learning, which is supported by constructivism’s ideology.
· Section 5.4 addresses sociocultural theory, which focuses on language development as a key component of learning, suggesting that the interactions we experience can affect this process.
· Section 5.5 considers problem-based learning (PBL), a type of learning activity endorsed by constructivists, and the application example further supports how constructivist ideologies look in action.
The prominent differences in the theoretical models presented in these readings will be the associative and specific nature of how, and to what extent, social, cultural, and physical variables influence the learning process.
As you evaluate the different theoretical frameworks, consider the findings that are presented, whether details might be missing, and if the findings support the argument that successful knowledge acquisition is more than the strict adherence to laws that often guide research. Ask yourself questions as you read, such as the following:
· Is learning merely based upon the memory acquisition of the learner?
· Can successful learning take place through attention and schema development alone?
· Do we learn better when we actively do something than when we just read or listen?
· Do constructivist-based theories reflect effective knowledge acquisition propositions?
These are just some of the many questions that should be considered when evaluating the suggestions presented based on constructivist principles and theories.
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5.1 Constructivism
It is important to understand that constructivist-based theories do not disprove cognitive or behaviorist theories. Instead, previous theories are used in conjunction with the foundation that learners should be the center of the process, organizing their own knowledge, based on their own reality. Constructivism is viewed both as a theory and as a teaching strategy. Both of these views can be construed as truths because the theory supports how we create knowledge and the aligned teaching strategies promote this endeavor and are hence applicable and vital to learning settings (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). Mascolo and Fischer (1995) have further suggested that “constructivism is the philosophical and scientific position that knowledge arises through a process of active construction” (p. 49), which is promoted by constructivist educational leaders.
The excerpts in this section are from Applefield, Huber, and Moallem (2000). The authors discuss three types of constructivism and consider how learners construct knowledge. They also summarize some of the constructivist-based theories that will be elaborated upon in later sections of the chapter. As you read, note that these authors emphasize constructivism in the context of classroom interactions; however, such strategies are also relevant in a multitude of other learning contexts. The constructivist framework offers trainers, educators, counselors, and other mentors practical strategies for encouraging effective learning.
Excerpts from “Constructivism in Theory and Practice: Toward a Better Understanding”
By J. M. Applefield, R. Huber, and M. Moallem
Three Types of Constructivism
[. . .] Within constructivism there are different notions of the nature of knowledge and the knowledge construction process. Moshman (1982) has identified three types of constructivism: exogenous constructivism, endogenous constructivism, and dialectical constructivism.
In exogenous constructivism or radical constructivism there is an external reality that is reconstructed as knowledge is formed. Thus one’s mental structures develop to reflect the organization of the world. The information processing conceptualizations of cognitive psychology emphasize the representation view of constructivism, calling attention to how we construct and elaborate schemata and networks of information based on the external realities of the environments we experience.
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When a teacher allows students to discuss, argue, and understand a topic, it is an example of dialectical or social constructivism. The students are interacting with each other, learning different points of view, and finding meaning in a particular topic.
Endogenous constructivism or cognitive constructivism (Cobb, 1994; Moshman, 1982) focuses on internal, individual constructions of knowledge. This perspective, which is derived from Piagetian theory (Piaget, 1970, 1977), emphasizes individual knowledge construction stimulated by internal cognitive conflict as learners strive to resolve mental disequilibrium (see Chapter 4). Essentially, children as well as older learners must negotiate the meaning of experiences and phenomena that are discrepant from their existing schema. Students may be said to author their own knowledge, advancing their cognitive structures by revising and creating new understandings out of existing ones. This is accomplished through individual or socially mediated discovery-oriented learning activities (such as the use of graphic organizers, labs, or group work).
Dialectical constructivism or social constructivism (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Rogoff, 1990) views the origin of knowledge construction as being the social intersection of people, interactions that involve sharing, comparing, and debating among learners and mentors. Through a highly interactive process, the social milieu of learning is accorded center stage and learners both refine their own meanings and help others find meaning. In this way knowledge is mutually built. This view is a direct reflection of Vygotsky’s (1978b) sociocultural theory (SCT) (discussed further in section 5.4), which accentuates the supportive guidance of mentors as they enable the apprentice learner to achieve successively more complex skill, understanding, and ultimately independent competence.
The fundamental nature of social constructivism is collaborative social interaction in contrast to individual investigation of cognitive constructivism. Through the cognitive give and take of social interactions, one constructs personal knowledge. In addition, the context in which learning occurs is inseparable from emergent thought. This latter view, known as contextualism in psychology, becomes a central tenet of constructivism when expressed as situated cognition, which is discussed in section 5.3. Social constructivism captures the most general present perspective on constructivism with its emphasis on the importance of social exchanges for cognitive growth and the impact of culture and historical context on learning. [. . .]
Constructing Knowledge
[. . .] There is an important similarity among most constructivists with regard to four central characteristics believed to influence all learning (and can be identified in other theoretical frameworks):
1. Learners construct their own learning
2. The dependence of new learning on students’ existing understanding
3. The critical role of social interaction
4. The necessity of activities that allow learners to discover meaningful knowledge through exploration of real-world problems, or authentic learning tasks (Bruning, Royce, & Dennison, 1995; Pressley, Harris, & Marks, 1992)
For learners to construct meaning, they must actively strive to make sense of new experiences and in so doing must relate it to what is already known or believed about a topic. Students develop knowledge through an active construction process, not through the passive reception of information (Brophy, 1992). In other words, learners must build their own understanding. How information is presented and how learners are supported in the process of constructing knowledge are of major significance. The preexisting knowledge that learners bring to each learning task is emphasized too. Students’ current understandings provide the immediate context for interpreting any new learning. Regardless of the nature or sophistication of a learner’s existing schema, each person’s existing knowledge structure will have a powerful influence on what is learned and whether and how conceptual change occurs.
Dialogue is the catalyst for knowledge acquisition. Understanding is facilitated by exchanges that occur through social interaction, through questioning and explaining, challenging and offering timely support and feedback. The concept of learning communities has been offered as the ideal learning culture for group instruction (Brown, 1994; Brown & Campione, 1994). These communities focus on helping group members learn, by supporting one another through respectful listening and encouragement. The goal is to engender a spirit and culture of openness, exploration, and a shared commitment to learning.
Situated cognition or learning (discussed further in section 5.3) is a concept advocated in social constructivist approaches and is a natural extension of the importance attached to the context, social and cultural, in which learning is believed to be born. Knowledge is conceived as being embedded in and connected to the situation where the learning occurs. As a consequence, thinking and knowledge that is constructed are inextricably tied to the immediate social and physical context of the learning experience. And what is learned tends to be context-bound or tied to the situation in which it is learned (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Evidence for the situational nature of learning can be seen in numerous cases where students’ school learning fails to transfer readily to relevant tasks outside of school. Brown et al. (1989) chronicle how people can acquire rather sophisticated mathematical operations in one setting and yet be quite unable to apply those same operations in another setting.
Just how teachers and peers support and contribute to learning is clarified by the concepts of scaffolding, cognitive apprenticeship, tutoring, and cooperative learning and learning communities (Brown, 1994; Rogoff, 1998). Cognition is viewed as a collaborative process, and modern constructivist thought provides the theoretical basis for cooperative learning, project or problem-based learning, and other discovery-oriented instructional approaches, all of which appeal to the powerful social nature of learning. As students are exposed to their peers’ thinking processes, appropriation of others’ ideas and ways of thinking is possible. Therefore, constructivists make extensive use of cooperative learning, a strategy that encourages small groups of learners to work together on tasks, as well as peer tutoring, believing that students will learn more readily from having dialog with each other about significant problems.
A second key concept derives from Vygotsky’s concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD) (discussed further in section 5.4) (Kozulin, 1986). When children work on tasks that cannot be accomplished alone but can be successfully completed with the assistance of a person competent in the task, they are said to be working within their zone of proximal development. (See Figure 5.1.) Children working in cooperative groups will generally encounter a peer who possesses a slightly higher cognitive level, one within the child’s zone of proximal development.
Figure 5.1: Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
ZPD indicates an area of development that should be supported by a more experienced expert to maximize knowledge acquisition.
Adapted from “Piaget’s Theory of Child Language and Thought,” by L. S. Vygotsky, in L. S. Vygotsky (Ed.), E. Hanfmann & G. Vakar (Trans.), Thought and Language (pp. 9–24), 1962, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Copyright 1962 by L. S. Vygotsky. Adapted with permission.
The concept of cognitive apprenticeship is analogous to that of apprenticeships in many occupations where one learns on the job by closely working with a master. The master models behavior and gives feedback and gradually allows the novice increasing opportunity to independently exercise the skills of the profession. A substantial aspect of the learning is the socialization into the norms and behavior of the profession. The experience of teachers and physician interns demonstrates the shadowing and modeling that occurs during this critical period in the development and induction into these professions. More generally, one can say that a cognitive apprenticeship relationship exists between teachers and students to the extent that teachers provide scaffolding for students, through the use of step-by-step guiding of the new knowledge from less complicated to more (Schweisfurth, 2013). At the same time that students are given complex, authentic tasks such as projects, simulations, and problems involving community issues, they are also given sufficient assistance to achieve the desired outcomes. [. . .]
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According to constructivist thought, learners should be challenged by thoughts and ideas, generating their own questions and assumptions. Learning occurs through reflection.
Since constructivists believe that the learner must transform or appropriate whatever is learned, one can say that all learning is discovered. To appropriate new understandings from one’s social environment and to become an efficient maker of meaning requires the adoption of specific intellectual skills, ones that should be modeled from more competent adults and peers. Thus generative learning strategies (learning-to-learn) may be explicitly taught to students or may be discovered by students as they are trying to find strategies for solving problems. For example, students have been guided to generate their own questions and summaries and analogies during reading (King, 1992a; Kourilsky & Wittrock, 1992; Wittrock, 1991) and while listening to lectures (King, 1992b). Reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984) is a successful method for teaching reading comprehension in which metacognitive skills, including question generation, prediction, and summary, are taught through teacher modeling, followed by student enactment of the same metacognitive behaviors. The goal is to encourage self-regulated learning, by helping learners develop effective learning strategies and knowledge of when to use them. [. . .]
The more traditional approach to instruction involves isolating the basic skills, teaching these separately and building these incrementally before tackling higher-order tasks. This is an essentially objectivist and behavioral approach to instruction, although cognitive information processing views often lead to similar instructional practices. Constructivists turn this highly sequential approach on its head. Instead of carefully structuring the elements of topics to be learned, learning proceeds from the natural need to develop understanding and skills required for completion of significant tasks. Learning occurs in a manner analogous to just-in-time manufacturing, where raw materials are received just prior to their use rather than held in expensive inventories. [. . .]
Constructivism in Practice
[. . .] Although constructivism is a theory about learning rather than a description of teaching, some important strides toward defining the relationship between theory and practice have been made. The following pedagogical recommendations, while general in nature, have been derived from fundamental constructivist principles of learning (Confrey, 1990; Brooks & Brooks, 1993; Fosnot, 1996).
1. Learners should be encouraged to raise questions, generate hypotheses, and test their validity.
2. Learners should be challenged by ideas and experiences that generate inner cognitive conflict or disequilibrium. Students’ errors should be viewed positively as opportunities for learners and teachers to explore conceptual understanding.
3. Students should be given time to engage in reflection through journal writing, drawing, modeling, and discussion. Learning occurs through reflective abstraction.
4. The learning environment should provide ample opportunities for dialogue, and the classroom should be seen as a “community of discourse engaged in activity, reflection, and conversation” (Fosnot, 1989).
5. In a community of learners, it is the students themselves who must communicate their ideas to others, defend them, and justify them.
6. Students should work with big ideas, central organizing principles that have the power to generalize across experiences and disciplines.
[. . .] The overriding goal of the constructivist educator is to stimulate thinking in learners that results in meaningful learning, deeper understanding, and transfer of learning to real-world contexts. To accomplish this goal, a constructivist framework leads teachers to incorporate strategies that encourage knowledge construction through primarily social learning processes, in which students develop their own understanding through interactions with peers and the teacher. In addition, in order to make manifest and link new knowledge to learners’ current understanding, the constructivist teacher selects authentic tasks and uses more ill-defined problems and higher-order questions. A significant problem tackled by small groups of students promotes involvement, curiosity, and heightened motivation. [. . .] The learner’s primary goal in this environment is to become a more active learner, to interact with peers, and to always view learning as a search for meaning. [. . .]
Source: From The High School Journal, vol. 84 Copyright © 2000 by the University of North Carolina Press. Used by permission of the publisher. www.uncpress.unc.edu
Discovery Learning
Discovery learning is an element of constructivism that was first presented in section i.4. This approach to learning allows learners to explore and uncover knowledge on their own. Discovery learning also emphasizes that learners must connect new information to their previous experiences. Borthick and Jones (2000) have provided the following description of discovery learning: “Learning theorists characterize learning to solve problems as discovery learning, in which participants learn to recognize a problem, characterize what a solution would look like, search for relevant information, develop a solution strategy, and execute the chosen strategy” (p. 181).
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Discovery learning emphasizes questioning, interpretation, curiosity, and reflection. This allows learners to connect new information to past experiences or knowledge.
The next excerpt in this section is from Dalgarno, Kennedy, and Bennett (2014). They consider how constructivism as a pedagogical approach can include discovery learning. The reading also evaluates the basis for using constructivist-based strategies within learning or training environments. Consider the following strategies for instruction that encourage discovery learning:
· Interpret artwork.
· Include manipulatives (e.g., graphic organizers, concept maps, lab experiments).
· Pause during instruction to allow questions.
· Apply learning to personal experiences.
· Use gaming techniques.
· Introduce a question, allow learners to discover their own answers, and then have a discussion.
· Encourage problem solving.
· Encourage curiosity.
· Encourage reflection.
· Be open to “try again” opportunities.
As you read, consider how the identified strategies support the constructivist viewpoints.
Excerpts from “The Impact of Students’ Exploration Strategies on Discovery Learning Using Computer-Based Simulations”
By B. Dalgarno, G. Kennedy, and S. Bennett
The notion of discovery learning has its origins in the 1960s, with Jerome Bruner one of the first to articulate in detail the potential benefits of instructional approaches with discovery learning at their core (Bruner, 1961). There are a range of related learning design approaches that are similar to or draw on elements of discovery learning, including exploratory learning (De Freitas & Oliver, 2006; Reilly, 1974), inquiry learning (Kuhn, Black, Keselman, & Kaplan, 2000; Rutherford, 1964) and problem-based learning (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980). See Table 5.1 for more about these three types of learning. [. . .] The idea that learning involves active knowledge construction has been used in support of inquiry-based learning approaches in the sciences, including discovery learning involving the use of computer-based simulations (De Jong & Van Joolingen, 1998). [. . .]
Table 5.1: Types of learning that emphasize discovery
| Type |
Description |
| exploratory learning |
The purposeful process of exploring how the learner’s current knowledge may be related to a new concept |
| inquiry learning |
Often led by a facilitator, the process of asking questions, posing scenarios, or presenting problems through which the learner is guided toward an understanding of new concepts |
| problem-based learning |
The process of presenting an open-ended problem that allows the learner to acquire experience in problem solving and increase his or her knowledge about a concept |
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A key element of constructivist theories of learning, and one that underpins discovery learning and related instructional approaches, is the idea that each person forms his or her own knowledge representation, building on his or her individual experiences—an idea generally attributed to Piaget (1973). According to constructivist theory, this knowledge representation is constantly reviewed and revised, as inconsistencies between the learner’s current knowledge representation and experience are encountered through active exploration (Bruner, 1962; von Glasersfeld, 1984). Piaget (1973) explains the learning process in terms of equilibration. Equilibration begins with the construction by the individuals of their own internal knowledge representation, or in Piaget’s terms, they accommodate their knowledge representation or schema to fit with their experience. Subsequent experiences that are consistent with this knowledge representation are then assimilated into this schema. New experiences that do not fit with their current knowledge representation result in a further accommodation of their schema to fit with this new experience. Clearly, such an account of the learning process, with its emphasis on constructing and reconstructing an individual knowledge representation through active exploration, has a natural fit with the idea of discovery learning. [. . .]
Source: Dalgarno, B., Kennedy, G., & Bennett, S. (2014). The impact of students’ exploration strategies on discovery learning using computer-based simulations. Educational Media International, 51(4), 310–329. Published by Taylor & Francis. Copyright © 2014 Routledge.
A key aspect of constructivist theory is that learners construct their own knowledge, which affects one’s memory development and recall. (The construction of knowledge has also been applied to other learning theories that will be discussed in upcoming sections of this text.) As outlined in this section, constructivism is a theory based on the belief that one’s knowledge is actively constructed and influenced by a person’s environment (Applefield et al., 2000; Dalgarno et al., 2014). Both sets of authors also provide practical strategies that can be used in learning environments and note additional frameworks that include constructivist foundations. Situated cognition (section 5.3) and problem-based learning (section 5.5) will build upon the information about constructivism presented in section 5.1.
Social constructivism (also called dialectical constructivism), the focus of section 5.2, considers how the social aspect of our surroundings influences this construction by suggesting that although we each have the ability to regulate our knowledge acquisition, social mediators can influence all learners without their conscious recognition of the impacts. These effects also blur the line between psychology and sociology (the study of society), and thus open a plethora of considerations for understanding how a person learns and how a person learns most effectively.
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5.2 Social Constructivism
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5.2 Social Constructivism
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Social interactions can both help and hurt knowledge acquisition. If there is a common goal or interest (e.g., a study topic), then a group of students studying together will most likely aid in new and retained knowledge.
Social constructivism suggests that a learner’s knowledge is based on social interactions—how learners experience and share their environments. This perspective supports the notion that the harmony between individuals and their society both positively and negatively affects successful learning. For example, socially constructed knowledge about the game of basketball would be supported more effectively by playing basketball and socially interacting with others who play. The importance of this basketball knowledge could be negatively affected if one is socially interactive with people who are uninterested in the subject.
As discussed in section 5.1, constructivism suggests that there is no shared reality but that reality is created by the individual (von Glasersfeld, 2001). Social constructivism further suggests that reality not only is created by the individual, but also is created through his or her interactions with others. Meaning in an individual’s reality is thus based in his or her society and culture. For example, a person who lives in the rural areas of Wyoming would have a decisively different perceived reality than someone who lives in the Bronx, New York City. Social constructivism encourages such individualized meanings, suggesting that there being two truths does not imply that one of the two truths is false or flawed.
The excerpts featured next are from Kim (2001). The article clarifies the differences between the original theory of constructivism and social constructivism by considering an additional variable: social interaction. Constructivism suggests that an individual’s previous knowledge can affect the acquisition of all new knowledge; social constructivism suggests that an individual’s previous social interactions are also crucial to all knowledge development.
Excerpts from “Social Constructivism”
By B. Kim
[. . .] Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding (Derry, 1999; McMahon, 1997). This perspective is closely associated with many contemporary theories, most notably the developmental theories of Vygotsky and Bruner (section 5.4), and Bandura’s social cognitive theory (discussed in Chapter 4) (Schunk, 2000).
Assumptions of Social Constructivism
Social constructivism is based on specific assumptions about reality, knowledge, and learning. To understand and apply models of instruction that are rooted in the perspectives of social constructivists, it is important to know the premises that underlie them.
Reality: Social constructivists believe that reality is constructed through human activity. Members of a society together invent the properties of the world (Kukla, 2000). For the social constructivist, reality cannot be discovered: It does not exist prior to its social invention.
Knowledge: To social constructivists, knowledge is also a human product, and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest, 1999; Gredler, 1997; Prawat & Floden, 1994). Individuals create meaning through their interactions with each other and with the environment they live in.
Learning: Social constructivists view learning as a social process. It does not take place only within an individual, nor is it a passive development of behaviors that are shaped by external forces (McMahon, 1997). Meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities.
Intersubjectivity of Social Meanings
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People living in a large, bustling city may have intersubjectivity because they share common living situations, experiences, or interests. This may differ for a rural community.
Intersubjectivity is a shared understanding among individuals whose interaction is based on common interests and assumptions that form the ground for their communication (Rogoff, 1990). For example, individuals living in an urban community might have a shared understanding about what a community is and what it does, which potentially differs from the shared understanding among individuals in rural communities. Communications and interactions entail socially agreed-upon ideas of the world and the social patterns and rules of language use (Ernest, 1999). Construction of social meanings, therefore, involves intersubjectivity among individuals. Social meanings and knowledge are shaped and evolve through negotiation within the communicating groups (Gredler, 1997; Prawat & Floden, 1994). Any personal meanings shaped through these experiences are affected by the intersubjectivity of the community to which the people belong.
Intersubjectivity not only provides the grounds for communication but also supports people to extend their understanding of new information and activities among the group members (Rogoff, 1990; Vygotsky, 1978b). Knowledge is derived from interactions between people and their environments and resides within cultures (Schunk, 2000; McMahon, 1997). The construction of knowledge is also influenced by the intersubjectivity formed by cultural and historical factors of the community (Gredler, 1997; Prawat & Floden, 1994). When the members of the community are aware of their intersubjective meanings, it is easier for them to understand new information and activities that arise in the community.
Social Context for Learning
Some social constructivists discuss two aspects of social context that largely affect the nature and extent of the learning (Gredler, 1997; Wertsch, 1991): historical developments inherited by the learner as a member of a particular culture. Symbol systems, such as language, logic, and mathematical systems, are learned throughout the learner’s life. These symbol systems dictate how and what is learned.
The nature of the learner’s social interaction with knowledgeable members of the society is important. Without the social interaction with more knowledgeable others, it is impossible to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to use them. Young children develop their thinking abilities by interacting with adults.
General Perspectives of Social Constructivism on Learning
Social constructivists see as crucial both the context in which learning occurs and the social contexts that learners bring to their learning environment. There are four general perspectives that inform how we could facilitate the learning within a framework of social constructivism (Gredler, 1997):
Cognitive tools perspective: Cognitive tools perspective focuses on the learning of cognitive skills and strategies. Students engage in those social learning activities that involve hands-on project-based methods and utilization of discipline-based cognitive tools (Gredler, 1997; Prawat & Floden, 1994). Together they produce a product and, as a group, impose meaning on it through the social learning process.
Idea-based social constructivism: Idea-based social constructivism sets education’s priority on important concepts in the various disciplines (e.g., part-whole relations in mathematics, photosynthesis in science, and point of view in literature) (Gredler, 1997, p. 59; Prawat, 1995; Prawat & Floden, 1994). These “big ideas” expand learner vision and become important foundations for learners’ thinking and on construction of social meaning (Gredler, 1997).
Pragmatic or emergent approach: Social constructivists with this perspective assert that the implementation of social constructivism in class should be emergent as the need arises (Gredler, 1997). Its proponents hold that knowledge, meaning, and understanding of the world can be addressed in the classroom from both the view of individual learner and the collective view of the entire class (Cobb, 1995; Gredler, 1997).
Transactional or situated cognitive perspectives: This perspective focuses on the relationship between the people and their environment. Humans are a part of the constructed environment (including social relationships); the environment is in turn one of the characteristics that constitutes the individual (Bredo, 1994; Gredler, 1997). When a mind operates, its owner is interacting with the environment. Therefore, if the environment and social relationships among group members change, the tasks of each individual also change (Bredo, 1994; Gredler, 1997). Learning thus should not take place in isolation from the environment.
Social Constructivism and Instructional Models
Instructional models based on the social constructivist perspective stress the need for collaboration among learners and with practitioners in the society (Lave & Wenger, 1991; McMahon, 1997). Lave and Wenger (1991) assert that a society’s practical knowledge is situated in relations among practitioners, their practice, and the social organization and political economy of communities of practice. For this reason, learning should involve such knowledge and practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Gredler, 1997). Social constructivist approaches can include reciprocal teaching, peer collaboration, cognitive apprenticeships, problem-based instruction, webquests, anchored instruction, and other methods that involve learning with others (Schunk, 2000). For example, based on social constructivism, an instructor who encourages students with different backgrounds to work together in a collaborative way (e.g., a group project) increases the likelihood that students will explore information from multiple points of view.
Source: Kim, B. (2001). Social constructivism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Used by permission of Michael Orey.
Social constructivism is a framework that emphasizes society as a key moderator of how meaning is constructed. To a social cognitivist, knowledge is considered useless if it has no meaning within one’s socially interactive environments. For example, what if you left the country to attend school and when you returned 10 years later, you no longer spoke your native language? Does what you say to those around you have meaning? A constructivist would suggest that the knowledge you have gained (the new language) will not have meaning in your previous environment (unless you stumble upon another person who knows this new language). (See Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Shaped by the World Around Us for another example of how our prior experiences with others can shape how we perceive the world around us.) Social constructivism, however, is not the only theoretical framework with foundations that apply constructivist ideologies.
In section 5.3, we will discuss situated cognition, a theory that also suggests that knowledge is based on interacting situational variables in our environment. This theory provides an additional example of how models for learning seemingly mesh important variables from different psychological camps (e.g. behaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist) more frequently. One important difference between situated cognition and social constructivism is the attention to language as the socially moderated key to meaning in knowledge that is emphasized in situated cognition theory.
Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Shaped by the World Around Us
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Our backgrounds affect how we process information in our environment. Would everyone who sees this man have the same perception about him?
Every learner has a unique background of experiences. It is important to remember that part of who we are is what we know, and each of us might know different things. Consider the nearby image. If you were asked to write a story about this image, do you think it would match someone else’s story? The man in this image could represent something different to you than he does to someone else. Maybe one story describes this man as a game hunter, but another story might indicate that this man is homeless. The image might even trigger different personal beliefs or emotions among those who see it.
Questions
1. Have you ever judged a person’s actions as unacceptable based on your own notions about acceptable behaviors?
2. Did you consider that perhaps what that person was doing was common and acceptable in his or her own culture?
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5.3 Situated Cognition
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5.3 Situated Cognition
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