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In the article by Huizinga, what is his main argument?

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Course Reader: Reading #1

What is Performance?

Excerpts from:

Johan Huizinga, Peggy Phelan, Erving Goffman,

Marvin Carlson, and Judith Butler

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #1

THE PERFORMANCE STUDIES READER

Edited by Henry Bia}

I~ ~~o~!!~n~~~up LONDON AND NEW YORK

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #2

First published 2004 by Routledge

29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge

11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE

Routledoc is an imprint rd’the Taxlor &..Frands Group

Typeset in Perpetu. by Reline Catch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk Printed and bound in Great Britain by

TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall

All rights rc”served, No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now kuown or hereafter invented, including

photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers,

Library ~r Congress Cataloging in Publication Data The performance studies reader / [compiled by] Henry BiaL

1. Theater – Anthropological aspects, 2, Performing arts, L Bial, Henry, 1970- PN2041.AS7P49 2003 791-dc21 2003005708

British Library Cata[o8uina in Publication Datil A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0–415-30240–4 (hbk) ISBN 0–415-30241-2 (pbk)

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #3

of existence is : play. Finally,

tal art in “Just

…~’……… .. .'”. “……•……………….•………..•~…..

~-“‘—‘ .- – , .

•• v •• :~~~~~;s~,.

THE NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PLAY AS A CULTURAL PHENOMENON

Jahan Huizinga

~ is oldeLt!!..an cultnre, for cultnre, however inadequately defined, always pre~poses human society, and animals have not waited for man to teach them their playing\We can safely assert, even, that human civilization has added no essential feature to the general

idea of play)Animals lay just like men. We have only to watch young dogs to see that all the essenti~ of human p ay are present in their merry gambols. They invite one another to play by a certain ceremoniousness of attitude and gesture. They keep to the rule that you shall not bite, or not bite hard, your brother’s ear. They pretend to get terribly angry. And

what is most important – in all these dOings they plainly experience tremendous fun

and enjoyment. Such rompings of young dogs are only one of the Simpler forms of animal play. There are other, much more highly developed forms: regular contests and beautiful performances before an admiring public.

Here we have at once a very important point: even in its simplest forms on the animal level, play is more than a mere physiological phenomenon or a psychological reflex. It

goes beyond the confines of purely physical or purely biological activitQ is a siBnificant function that is to say, there is some sense to it. In play there is something “at play” which

transcends the immediate needs of life and imparts meaning to the action. All play means somethinillf we call the active principle that makes up the essence of play “instinct”, we explain nothing; if we call it “mind” or “will” we say too much. However we may regard it, the very fact that play has a meaning implies a non-materialistic quality in the nature of the

thing itself. Psychology and physiology deal with the observation, description, and explanation of the

play of animals, children, and grown-ups. They try to determine the natnre and significance of play and to assign it its place in the scheme of life. The high importance of this place and

the necessity, or at least the utility, of playas a function aretnerallY taken for granted and form the starting-point of all such scientific researches. he numerous attempts to define the biological function of play show a striking variati . By some the origin and

fundamentals of play have been described as a discharge of superabundant vital energy, by others as the satisfaction of some “imitative instinct”, or again as simply a “need” for relaxation. According to one theory play constitutes a training of the young creature for the

117

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #4

lOHAN HUIZINGA

serious work that life will demand later on. According to another it serves as an exercise

in restraint needful to the individuf~me find the principle of play in an innate urge to e!ercise a ~.tain faculty, or in the desire to dominate or compete. Yet others regard it as an “abreaction” an outlet for harmful im ulses, as the necessa restorer of ener wasted

b~n~e~s!~,~?!l~vt~.!c~~ ment”, as a fictio~esigned to ~the feeling of ersonal value, etc.

A t ese ypotheses have one thing in common: they all start from the assumption that -jX p y must serve something which is not play, that it must have some kind of biological

purpose. They all enquire into the why and the wherefore of play\ The various answers they give tend rather to overlap than to exclude one another. It w~d be perfectly possible to accept nearly all the explanations without getting into any real confusion of thought – and without coming much nearer to a real understanding of the play-concept. They are all only partial solutions of the problem. If any of them were really decisive it ought either to exclude all the others or comprehend them in a higher unity. Most of them only deal incidentally with the question of what play is in itself and what it means for the player. They attack play direct with the quantitative methods of experimental science without first paying attention to its profoundly aesthetic quality. As a rule they leave the primary quality of play as such virtually untouched. To each and everyone of the above “explanations” it might well be objected: “So far so good, but what actually is thejim of playing? Why does the baby crow with pleasure? Why does the gambler lose himself in his passion? Why is a huge crowd roused to frenzy by a football match?” This intensity of, and absorption in, play finds no explanation in biological analysis. ~t in this intensity, this absorption, this power of maddening, lies the very essence, the primordial quality of plaY\Nature, so our reasoning

/ mind tells us, could just as easily have given her children air’those useful functions of

~ I discharging superabundant energy, of relaxing after exertion, of training for the demands < “of life, of compensating for unfulfilled longings, etc., in the form of purely mechanical

\ exercises and reactions. But no, she gave us play, with its tension, its mirth, and its fun. ~ ~–~.~~–~~~–~~-,,~~~–~~~~~

Now this last-named element, the un 0 paying, resists all analYSiS, all ogic interpret ation. As a concept, it cannot be reduced to any other mental category. No other modern language known to me has the exact equivalent of the English “fun.” The Dutch “aardigkeit” perhaps comes nearest to it (derived from “aard” which means the same as “Art” and “Wesen,,2 in German, and thus evidence, perhaps, that the matter cannot be reduced

further). We may note in passing that “fun” in its current usage is of rather recent origin. French, oddly enough, has no corresponding term at all; German half makes up for it by “Spass” and “Witz” together.fu.evertheless it is precisely this fun-element that characterizes the essence of play. Here we have to do with an absolutely primary category of life, familiar to everybody at a glance right down to the animal level. We may call play a “totality” in the modern ~nse of the word, and it is as a totality that we must try to understand and evaluate itJ

Since the realitX..£!-Elay ext~.ds b~L?,nd.~::.~J>her.e ofhuman life it c<l1ll10t have its fou~atfonsrna;ry rational nexus, because this would finiit’it to mari.ldiidiThei~dence of play is not associated with any particular ~~ci~liz~;~-~ihe universe. Any thinking person can see at a glance that play is a thing on its own, even if his language

118

possesses like, neal seriousne

But in ~

matter. E point ‘or’

be altoge an influx of play CI so they n must be J (In tad

liie of th,

we find F pervadin; living in,

~ succeede events it which illi that is ou general, We shall

that play (i.e. its ,

significar itself and

~ start. Tal o”raer to establish,

~he dom

ksparkin! faculty. metapho

p~ Or tal

here the

myth, pr Divine. 1 between rites, its

being of

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #5

exercise ~ urge to gard it as

~ wasted feeling of

)tion that

biological wers they ossible to ght and

‘e all only either to only deal Iyer. They

rst paying ity of play ” it might s the baby .lge crowd play finds power of

–

reasoning nctions of ~ demands nechanical ;s fun.

interpret ~r modern aardigkeit” “Art” and e reduced

~nt origin. p for it by aracterizes ry of life, :all playa ,ust try to

)t have its

~idence of verse. Any s language

THE NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PLAY

possesses no general concept to express it. Play cannot be denied. You can deny, if you like, nearly all abstracti,s: justice, beauty, truth, goodness, mind, God. You can deny seriousness, but not plav ~in aCknowledgtqg plax lOU acknowledge mind, for whatever else plaLi~, it is not

matter. Even in th,$ animal world it bursts thJ;Lbounds of the phYSically existent. From the point ‘or’view of a world wholly determined by the operation of blin~s, play would be altogether superfluous. Play only becomes possible, thinkable, and understandable when an influx of mind breaks down the absolute determinism of the cosmos. The very existence of play continually confirms the supra-logical nature of the human situation.0″nimals play, so they must be more than merely mechanical things. We play and know that we play, so we must be more than merely rational beings, for play is irrationa;) {In tackling the problem of playas a function of culture proper and not as it appears in the

lite of the animal or the child, we begin where biology and psychology leave off. In culture we find playas a given magnitude existing before culture itself existed, accompanying it and pervading it from the earliest beginnings right up to the phase of civilization we are now

living in. ~ eresent everywhere as a well-defined ~ of ~on which ~ different from “nn;linary” life. We can disregard the question of how far science has succeeded in reducing this quahty to quantitative factors. In our opinion it has not. At all events it is precisely this quality, itself so characteristic of the form of life we call “play,” which matters. Playas a special form of activity, as a “significant form,” as a social function that is our subject. We shall not look for the natural impulses and habits conditioning play in general, but shall consider play in its manifold concrete forms as itself a social construction.

We shall try to take playas the player himself takes it: in its primary Significance. If we find that play is based on the manipulation of certain images, on a certain “imagination” of reality (Le. its conversion into images), then our main concern will be to grasp the value and Significance of these images and their “imagination.” We shall. observe their action in play itself and thus try to understand playas a cultural factor in life0 ~reat arc~ypal activiti~ of hum~ society are all pet-meated. with …r!:r..!tom the ..

s;art. Take language, for instance that first and ~ureme instrument which man shapes in oraer to communicate, to teach, to command. Language allows him to distinguish, to establish, to state things; in short, to name them d by naming them to raise them into the domain of the spirit. In the making of speech and language the spirit is continually “sparking” between matter and mind, as it were, playing with this wondrous nominative faculty. Behind every abstract expression there lies the boldest of metaphors, and every

metaphor is a play upon words. Thus in giving ex ression..!’~ man creates poetic world alo~side the world of nature.

Or take myth. This, too, is a transformation or an “imagination” of the outer woad, only here the process is more elaborate and ornate than is the case with individual words(in myth, primitive man seeks to account for the world of phenomena by grounding it in \he Divine. In all the wild imaginings of mythology a fanciful spirit is pla)ing on the borderline between jest and earnest. Or finally, let us take ritual. Primitive society performs its sacred rites, its sacrifices, consecrations, and mysteries, all of which serve to guarantee the well being of the world, in a spirit of pure play truly understo09

119

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #6

JOHAN HUIZINGA

Gow in myth and ritual the great instinctive forces of civilized life have their origin: law and order, commerce and profit, craft: and art, poetry, wisdom and science. All are rooted in the primeval soil of play. / The object of the present essa is to demonstrate that it is more than a rhetorical

~ <;.omparison to view ture sub waie ludi ..The thought is not at all new. There was a time ‘;hen it was generally accepted, though in a limited sense quite ~erent from the one intended here: in the seventeenth century, the age of world theatreeama, in a glittering succession of figures ranging from Shakespeare and Calderon to Racme, then dominated the literature of the West. It was the fashion to liken the world to a stage on which every

man plays his part. Does this mean that the play-element in civilization was openly acknowledged? Not at all. On closer examination this fashionable comparison of life to a

stage proves to be little more than an echo of the Neo-platonism that was then in vogue, with a markedly moralistic accent. It was a variation on the ancient theme of the vanity of

all things. The fact that play and culture are actually interwoven with one another was

neither observed nor expressed, whereas fO~the whole point is to show that genuine, pure play is one of the main bases of civilization.

NOTES

For these theories, see H. Zondervan, Het Spel bij Dieren, Kindem, en Volwassen Menschen (Amsterdam, 1928), and EJ.J. Buytendijk, Het Spel van J1ensch en Diet als openbaring van levensdr!ften (Amsterdam, 1932).

2 Nature, kind, being, essence, etc. Trans.

READER CROSS-REFERENCES

Schechner, Kirshenblatt-Gimblett the inclusion of play in performance studies

Bateson the importance of play in communication and thought

Sutton-Smith playas a concept in philosophy, science, and other disciplines

120

This researd task of the m amplify and I

The hypot Earlier fur

as well as n:

psychiatric tI: (1) That 1

contrasting I, denotative Ie includes thos

We will call member of ~ scratch”). Th

telling you ‘” discourse is t

It will be

messages ren: a further clas

and hostility. (2) If we

important st; quite “autom,

a signal: that which can be

CJearly ili human specie these stimuli

Signals conco nonhuman m inasmuch as

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #7

Unmarked The Politics of Performance

Peggy Phelan

0<>111’L.l:.oO 0:’ tIi . .

-;4.,. .. ~~

London and New York

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #8

First published 1993 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OXI4 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016

Reprinted 1996, 1998, 2001

Transferred to Digital Printing 2006

Routledge is an imprint Ifthe Taylor & Francis Group C> 1996 Peggy Phelan

Typeset in 10 on 12 point Palatino by Florencetype Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system. without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Oltaloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

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ISBN ~15-06821-5 (hbk) ISBN ~15-06822-3 (pbk)

PubUsher’s Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original may be apparent

Printed and bound by CPI Antony Rowe, Eastboume

and for the ones who have shatt

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #9

The ontology of performance: representation without reproduction

Performance’s only life is in the present. Performance cannot be saved, recorded, documented, or otherwise participate in the circulation of representations of representations: once it does so, it becomes some thing other than performance. To the degree that performance attempts to enter the economy of reproduction it betrays and lessens the promise of its own ontology. Performance’s being, like the ontology of subjec tivity proposed here, becomes itself through disappearance.

The pressures brought to bear on performance to succumb to the laws of the reproductive economy are enormous. For only rarely in this culture is the “now” to which performance addresses its deepest ques tions valued. (This is why the now is supplemented and buttressed by the documenting camera, the video archive.) Performance occurs over a time which will not be repeated. It can be performed again, but this repetition itself marks it as “different.” The document of a performance then is only a spur to memory, an encouragement of memory to become present.

The other arts, especially painting and photography, are drawn increasingly toward performance. The French-born artist Sophie Calle, for example, has photographed the galleries of the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston. Several valuable paintings were stolen from the museum in 1990. Calle interviewed various visitors and mem bers of the museum staff, asking them to describe the stolen paintings. She then transcribed these texts and placed them next to the photo graphs of the galleries. Her work suggests that the descriptions and memories of the paintings constitute their continuing “presence,” de spite the absence of the paintings themselves. Calle gestures toward a notion of the interactive exchange between the art object and the viewer. While such exchanges are often recorded as the stated goals of museums and galleries, the institutional effect of the gallery often seems to put the masterpiece under house arrest, controlling all conflicting and unprofes sional commentary about it. The speech act of memory and description (Austin’s constative utterance) becomes a performative expression

when Calle place; museum. The de; and displace) the .~ considerably – eH the interaction be performative – aJ! accuracy endemic torian of painting Calle asks where : the subject’s own! work suggests tha mental energy of I not reproduce the effort to remembe acquires meaning object, but for the is fundamental to ance of the subject

For her contril> Modern Art in l’\el she asked curators on loan from the small pictures of th texts and pictures paintings and pia usually hang. Call Calle’s work spreai following and trae museum. 1 Moreo”\, dispersed through circulates despite it of self-concealmen1 works of art unde attempt to offer w subverts the goal ( does not have and own work. By placi the ghosts of mem tion” of “great WOl over and over abou a slightly different formative quality 0

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #10

mance: reproduction

mance cannot be saved, ‘te in the circulation of s so, it becomes some It performance attempts and lessens the promise the ontology of subjec ;appearance. ! to succumb to the laws For only rarely in this lresses its deepest ques mted and buttressed by rformance occurs over a rformed again, but this ument of a performance nt of memory to become

lOtography, are drawn JOn1 artist Sophie Calle, of the Isabella Stewart ! paintings were stolen Iious visitors and mem IN! the stolen paintings. IIem next to the photo at the descriptions and IiDuing “presence,” de CaDe gestures toward a d object and the viewer. rIaIed goals of museums yoften seems to put the IIIIIfIicting and unprofes EmOry and description If!Iformative expression

The ontology of pertormance 147

when Calle places these commentaries within the representation of the museum. The descriptions fill in, and thus supplement (add to, defer, and displace) the stolen paintings. The fact that these descriptions vary considerably – even at times wildly – only lends credence to the fact that the interaction between the art object and the spectator is, essentially, performative – and therefore resistant to the claims of validity and accuracy endemic to the discourse of reproduction. While the art his torian of painting must ask if the reproduction is accurate and clear, Calle asks where seeing and memory forget the object itself and enter the subject’s own set of personal meanings and associations. Further her work suggests that the forgetting (or stealing) of the object is a funda mental energy of its descriptive recovering. The description itself does not reproduce the object, it rather helps us to restage and restate the effort to remember what is lost. The descriptions remind us how. loss acquires meaning and generates recovery – not only of and for the object, but for the one who remembers. The disappearance of the object is fundamental to performance; it rehearses and repeats the disappear ance of the subject who longs always to be remembered.

For her contribution to the Dislocations show at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1991, Calle used the same idea but this time she asked curators, guards, and restorers to describe paintings that were on loan from the permanent collection. She also asked them to draw small pictures of their memories of the paintings. She then arranged the texts and pictures according to the exact dimensions of the circulating paintings and placed them on the wall where the actual paintings usually hang. Calle calls her piece Ghosts, and as the visitor discovers Calle’s work spread throughout the museum, it is as if Calle’s own eye is following and tracking the viewer as she makes her way through the museum. l Moreover, Calle’s work seems to disappear because it is dispersed throughout the “permanent collection” – a collection which circulates despite its “permanence.” Calle’s artistic contribution is a kind of self-concealment in which she offers the words of others about other works of art under her own artistic signature. By making visible her attempt to offer what she does not have, what cannot be seen, Calle subverts the goal of museum display. She exposes what the museum does not have and cannot offer and uses that absence to generate her own work. By placing memories in the place of paintings, Calle asks that the ghosts of memory be seen as equivalent to “the permanent collec tion” of “great works.” One senses that if she asked the same people over and over about the same paintings, each time they would describe a slightly different painting. In this sense, Calle demonstrates the per formative quality of all seeing.

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #11

148 Unmarked

Performance in a strict ontological sense is nonreproductive. It is this quality which makes performance the runt of the litter of contemporary art. Performance clogs the smooth machinery of reproductive represen tation necessary to the circulation of capital. Perhaps nowhere was the affinity between the ideology of capitalism and art made more manifest than in the debates about the funding policies for the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA).2 Targeting both photography and performance art, conservative politicians sought to prevent endorsing the “real” bodies implicated and made visible by these art forms.

Performance implicates the real through the presence of living bodies. In performance art spectatorship there is an element of consumption: there are no left-overs, the gazing spectator must try to take everything in. Without a copy, live performance plunges into visibility in a maniacally charged present – and disappears into memory, into the realm of invisibility and the unconscious where it eludes regulation and control. Performance resists the balanced circulations of finance. It saves nothing; it only spends. While photography is vulnerable to charges of counterfeit ing and copying, performance art is vulnerable to charges of valueless ness and emptiness. Performance indicates the possibility of revaluing that emptiness; this potential revaluation gives performance art its dis tinctive oppositional edge.3

To attempt to write about the undocumentable event of performance is to invoke the rules of the written document and thereby alter the event itself. Just as quantum physics discovered that macro-instruments cannot measure microscopic particles without transforming those par ticles, so too must performance critics realize that the labor to write about performance (and thus to “preserve” it) is also a labor that fundamentally alters the event. It does no good, however, to simply refuse to write about performance because of this inescapable transform ation. The challenge raised by the ontological claims of performance for writing is to re-mark again the performative possibilities of writing itself. The act of writing toward disappearance, rather than the act of writing toward preservation, must remember that the after-effect of disappear ance is the experience of subjectivity itself.

This is the project of Roland Barthes in both Camera Lucida and Roland Barthes by Roland Barthes. It is also his project in Empire of Signs, but in this book he takes the memory of a city in which he no longer is, a city from which he disappears, as the motivation for the search for a disap pearing performative writing. The trace left by that script is the meeting point of a mutual disappearance; shared subjectivity is possible for Barthes because two people can recognize the same Impossible. To live for a love whose goal is to share the Impossible is both a humbling

project and an exl1!I!’II only in that whic:h ill involve a full seeinga which also entails III humbling part). For t ence is to acknowlellt!

In the field of IiDp ontology of perf,,* “Being an individual. be repeated. Eaduep is qualified. Othenri! by someone else J1E’I[I!

Writing, an activilJ three letters cat wiD n whiskers) for the PI performance but aBI mimicry of speech • words in each otheI’s substitutional ecoIlOI established. PerfOiuaa circulatory economy’ a limited number ofl experienceofvalue~ it necessarily cancels I mative promise. Pe.di technologically, ecom But buffeted by the en frequently devalues : unwittingly, enCOUl1illl documentlary. PerfoIJ repeated words to I Benveniste warned.. Cl

The distinction beI1 proposed by J. L. A argued that speech hi the world) and a pel make something.. e..~ speech acts refer ani] signifies. For Derrida, utterance of the prom tive is important to independence froIn II performative enacts II

Tania Modleski

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #12

nonreproductive. It is this : the litter of contemporary , of reproductive represen Perhaps nowhere was the ld art made more manifest :x>lides for the National g both photography and tght to prevent endorsing : by these art forms. ~ presence of living bodies. element of consumption: lUst try to take everything ges into viSibility – in a lto memory, into the realm ::Ies regulation and control. f finance. It saves nothing; .e to charges of counterfeit le to charges of valueless \e possibility of revaluing ~s performance art its dis

lble event of performance mt and thereby alter the d that macro-instruments t transforming those par e that the labor to write

it) is also a labor that ood, however, to simply tis inescapable transform :laims of performance for ssibilities of writing itself. er than the act of writing after-effect of disappear-

Camera Lucida and Roland in Empire of Signs, but in .ch he no longer is, a city or the search for a disap that script is the meeting bjectivity is possible for same Impossible. To live ~ible is both a humbling

The ontology of performance 149

project and an exceedingly ambitious one, for it seeks to find connection only in that which is no longer there. Memory. Sight. Love. It must involve a full seeing of the Other’s absence (the ambitious part), a seeing which also entails the acknowledgment of the Other’s presence (the humbling part). For to acknowledge the Other’s (always partial) pres ence is to acknowledge one’s own (always partial) absence.

In the field of linguistics, the performative speech act shares with the ontology of performance the inability to be reproduced or repeated. “Being an individual and historical act, a performative utterance cannot be repeated. Each reproduction is a new act performed by someone who is qualified. Otherwise, the reproduction of the performative utterance by someone else necessarily transforms it into a constative utterance. ,,4

Writing, an activity which relies on the reproduction of the Same (the three letters cat will repeatedly signify the four-legged furry animal with whiskers) for the production of meaning, can broach the frame of performance but cannot mimic an art that is nonreproductive. The mimicry of speech and writing, the strange process by which we put words in each other’s mouths and others’ words in our own, relies on a substitutional economy in which equivalencies are assumed and re established. Performance refuses this system of exchange and resists the circulatory economy fundamental to it. Performance honors the idea that a limited number of people in a specific time/space frame can have an experience of value which leaves no visible trace afterward. Writing about it necessarily cancels the “tracelessness” inaugurated within this perfor mative promise. Performance’s independence from mass reproduction, technologically, economically, and linguistically, is its greatest strength. But buffeted by the encroaching ideologies of capital and reproduction, it frequently devalues this strength. Writing about performance often, unwittingly, encourages this weakness and falls in behind the drive of the documentlary. Performance’s challenge to writing is to discover a way for repeated words to become performative utterances, rather than, as Benveniste warned, constative utterances.

The distinction between performative and constative utterances was proposed by J. L. Austin in How To Do Things With Words. s Austin argued that speech had both a constative element (describing things in the world) and a performative element (to say something is to do or make something, e.g. “I promise,” “I bet,” “I beg”). Performative speech acts refer only to themselves, they enact the activity the speech signifies. For Derrida, performative writing promises fidelity only to the utterance of the promise: I promise to utter this promise. 6 The performa tive is important to Derrida precisely because it displays language’s independence from the referent outside of itself. Thus, for Derrida the performative enacts the now of writing in the present time?

Tania Modieski h “;h”~’OAustin and a<gues

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #13

THE PERFORMANCE STUDIES READER

Edited by Henry Bia}

I~ ~~~;~~n~R~up LONDON AND NEW YORK

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #14

I To

First published 2004 by Routl edge

29 West 3Sth Street, New York , NY 10001

Simultaneously published in the UK by Routl edge

II New Fe tte r Lane, London EC4P 4EE

Routledae is an imprint of th e Taylor &..Francis Croup

Typese t in Perpetu . by Refin e Catch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk Printed and bound in Great Britain by

TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall

phOLOCOp)’ing and re.cording. or in any inrormation storage or retrieval system , without

permi ssion in writing from th e pubUshers.

Library of Conares.s CoroloBinO in Publianion Data The performance studies read er / Ico mpiled by) Henry Bial.

I . Theater – Anthropological aspects . 2. Performing arts. I. Bial, Henry, 1970- PN2041 .A57P49 2003 791 – dc21 2003005708

Bri lh’h Library CatalOlJuino in PublicaUon Data A catalogue rc cord for thi s book is available from th e British Library

ISBN 0–415-30240–4 (hbk) ISBN 0–4IS – 30241-2 ( pbk )

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #15

PERFORMANCES

Belief in the part one is playing

Erving G1fman

When an individual plays a part he implicitly requests his observers to take seriously the

impression th~at is fostered before them. They are asked to believe that the character they

see actually possesses the attributes he appears to possess, that the task he performs will

have the consequences that are implicitly claimed for it, and that, in general, matters are

what they appear to be. In line with this@ere is the popular view that the individual offers

his performance and puts on his show “for the benefit of other people.” It will be convenient

to begin a consideration of performances by turning the question around and looking ~

the individual’s own belief in the impression of reality that he attempts to engender in those

am ong w~ he finds him seU . ) At one extreme, one finds that the performer can be fully taken in by his own act; he can

be sincerely convinced that the impression of reality which he stages is the real reality.

When his audience is also convinced in this way about the show he puts on – and this seems

to be the typical case – then, for the moment at least, only the SOciologist or the socially

disgruntled will have any doubts about the “realness” of what is presented.

At the other extreme, we find that the performer may not be taken in at all by his own

routine. This possibility is understandable, since no one is in quite as good an observational

position to see through the act as the person who puts it on. Coupled with this, the

performer may be moved to guide the conviction of his audience only as a means to other

ends, having no ultimate concern in the conception that they have of him or of the situation.

When the individual has no belief in his own act and no ultimate concern with the beliefs

of his audience, we may call him cynical, reserving the term “sincere” for individuals who

believe in the impression fostered by their~rror~manc’9 It should be understood that the cynic, with all h is professional disinvolvement, may obtain unprofessional pleasures from

his masquerade, experiencing a kind of gleeful spiritual aggression from the fact that he can

toy at will with something his audience must take seriously. I

It is not assumed, of course, that all cynical performers are interested in deluding their

audiences for purposes of what is called “self~interest” or private gain. A cynical individual

may delude his audience for what he considers to be their own good, or for the good of the

community, etc. For illustrations of this we need not appeal to sadly enlightened showmen

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #16

ERVING GOFFMAN

such as Marcus Aurelius or Hsun Tzu . We know that in service occupations practitioners

who may otherwise be sincere are sometimes forced to delude their customers because

their customers show such a heartfelt demand for it. Doctors who are led into giving

placebos, filling station attendants who resignedly check and recheck tire pressures for

anxious women motorists, shoe clerks who sell a shoe that fits but tell the customers it is the

size she wants to hear – these are cynical performers whose audiences will not allow them

to be sincere. Similarly, it seems that sympathetic patients in mental wards will sometimes

feign bizarre symptoms so that student nurses will not be subjected to a disappointingly

sane performance. 2

So also, whe n inferiors extend their most lavish reception for visiting

superiors, the selfish desire to win favor may not be the chief motive; the inferior may be

tactfully attempting to put the superior at ease by simulating the kind of world the superior

is thought to take for granted .

I have suggested two extremes: an individual may be taken in by his own act or be cynical

about it. These extremes are something a little more than just the ends of a continuum.

Each provides the individual with a position which has its own particular securities and

defenses, so there will be a tendency for those who have traveled close to one of these poles

to complete the voyage. Starting with lack of inward belief in one’s role, the individual may

follow the natural movement described by Park:

It is probably no mere historical accident that the word person in its first meaning,

is a mask. It is rather a recognition of the fact that everyone is always and every

where, more or less consciously, playing a role . . . it is in these roles that we know

each other; it is in these roles that we know ourselves. 3

In a sense , and in so far as this mask represents the conception we have formed

of ourselves – the role we are striving to live up to – this mask is our truer self,

the self we would like to be . In the end, our conception of our role becomes

second nature and an integral part of our personality . We come into the world as

individuals, achieve character, and become persons.’

This may be ill ustrated from the community Ufe of Shetland. 5 For the last four or five years

the island’s tourist hotel has been owned and operated by a married couple of crofter

origins. From the beginning, the own e rs were forced to set aside their own conceptions as

to how life ought to be led, displaying in the hotel a full round of middle-class services and

amenities. Lately, however, it appears that the managers have become less cynical about the

performance that they stage; they themselves are becoming middle class and more and more

enamored of the selves their clients impute to them.

Another illustration may be found in the raw recruit who initially follows army etiquette

in order to avoid physical punishment and eventually comes to follow the rules so that his

organization will not be shamed and his officers and fellow soldiers will respect him.

As suggested, the cycle of disbe lief-to-belief can be followed in the other direction,

starting with conviction or insecure aspiration and ending in cynicism. Professions which

the public holds in religious awe often allow their recruits to follow the cycle in this

PERFO

direction, and oftel

they are deluding tl

be quite valid – bu

selves from contac

faith, with the indil

required to give, tI before completing

Thus, students of 1

school typically lay

years the students f all their time to tht

years they are too I

are diseased. It is 01

medical service mao

While we can e

sinceri ty, still we n

the strength of a Iii

audience to judge h

as an ultimate end

valuation of self wh

Another mixture 01

Next, there is

men, the worl

in exhibitions

cases awarenes;

there has been

ethnographers

they add fraud

other shamans:

I have been using

which occurs durin!

observers and whic

as “front” that part

and fixed fashion t<

then, is the expressi

by the individual du

distinguish and label

First, there is th<

ground items which

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #17

PERFORMANCES : BELIEF IN THE PART ONE IS PLAYING

‘racti tioners direction, and often recruits follow it in this direction not because of a slow realization that ers because they are deluding their audience ~ for by ordinary social standards the claims they make may into giving be quite valid – but because they can use this cynicism as a means of insulating their inner

ressures for selves from contact with the audience. And we may even expect to find typical careers of lers it is the faith, with the individual starting out with one kind of involvement in the performance he is allow them required to give, then moving back and forth several times between sincerity and cynicism I sometimes before completing all the phases and turning-points of self-belief for a person of his station. lppointingly Thus, students of medical schools suggest that idealistically oriented beginners in medical for visiting school typically lay aside their holy aspirations for a period of time. During the first two

rior may be years the students find that their interest in medicine must be dropped so that they may give :he superior all their time to the task of learning how to get through examinations. During the next two

years they are too busy learning about diseases to show much concern for the persons who Ir be cynical are diseased. It is only after their medical schooling has ended that their original ideals about continuum. medical service may be reasserted. 6

curities and While we can expect to find natural movement back and forth between cynicism and . these poles sincerity, still we must not rule out the kind of transitional point that can be sustained on !i\cidual may the strength of a little self-illusion. We find that the individual may attempt to induce the

audience to judge him and the situation in a particular way, and he may seek this judgment

as an ultimate end in itself, and ye t he may not completely believe that he deserves the

ICaning, valuation of self which he asks for or that the impression of reality which he fosters is valid. every Another mixture of cynicism and belief is suggested in Kroeber’s discussion of shamanism:

e know

Next, there is the old question of deception. Probably most shamans or medicine

men, the world over, help along with sleight-of-hand in curing and especially ormed in exhibitions of power. This sleight-of-hand is sometimes deliberate; in many

ler self, cases awareness is perhaps not deeper than the foreconscious. The attitude, whether

~comes there has been repression or not, seems to be as toward a pious fraud. Field orld as ethnographers seem quite generally convinced that even shamans who know that

they add fraud nevertheless also believe in their powers, and especially in those of

other shamans: they consult them when they themselves or their children are ill. 7 l r five years

of crofter Front

[ have been using the term “performance” to refer to all the activity of an individual

which occurs during a period marked by his continuous presence before a particular set of

observers and which has some influence on the observers. It will be convenient to label

as “front” that part of the individual’s performance which regularly functions in a general

and fixed fashion to define the situation for those who observe the performance. Front,

then, is the expressive equipment of a standard kind intentionally or unwittingly employed

by the individual during his performance. For preliminary purposes, it will be convenient to

distinguish and label what seem to be the standard parts of front.

First, there is the “setting,” involving furniture, decor, physical layout, and other back

ground items which supply the scenery and stage props for the spate of human action played

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #18

ERVING GOFFMAN

out before, within, or upon it. A setting tends to stay put , geographically speaking, so that

@ se who would use a particular setting as part of their performance cannot begin their

act until they have brought themselves to the appropriate place and must terminate their

performance when they leave iDIt is only in exceptional circumstances that the setting

follows along with the performers; we see this in the funeral cortege, the civic parade,

and the dream-like processions that kings and queens are made of. In the main, these

exceptions seem to offer some kind of extra protection for performers who are, or who

have momentarily become, highly sacred. These worthies are to be distinguished, of course,

from qUite profane performers of the peddler class who move their place of work between

performances, often being forced to do so . In the matter of having one fixed place for one’s

setting, a ruler may be too sacred, a peddler too profane.

In thinking about the scenic aspects of front, we tend to think of the living room in a

particular house and the small number of performers who can thoroughly identify them

selves with it . We have given insufficient attention to assemblages of Sign-equipment which

large numbers of performers can call their own for short periods of time. It is characteristic

of Western European countries, and no doubt a source of stability for them, that a large

number of luxurious settings are available for hire to anyone of the right kind who can

afford them. One illustration of this may be cited from a study of the higher civil servant in

Britain :

The question how far the men who rise to the top in the Civil Service take on the

“tone” or “color” of a class other that to which they belong by birth is delicate

and difficult. The only definite information bearing on the question is the figures

relating to the membership of the great London clubs. More than three-quarters

of our high administrative officials belong to one or more clubs of high status

and considerable luxury, where the entrance fee might be twenty guineas or more,

and the annual subscription from twelve to twenty guineas. These institutions are of

the upper class (not even of the upper middl e) in their premises, their equipment,

the style of living practiced there, their whole atmosphere. Though many of the

m embers would not be described as wealthy, only a wealthy man would unaided

provide for himself and his family space, food and drink, service, and other

amenities of life to the same standard as he will find at the Union, the Travellers’, 8

or the Reform.

Another example can be found in the recent development of the medical profession where

we find that it is increasingly important for a doctor to have access to the elaborate scientific

stage provided by large hospitals, so that fewer and fewer doctors are able to feel that their

setting is a place that they can lock up at night . 9

If we take the term “setting” to refer to the scenic parts of expressive equipment, one

may take the term “personal front” to refer to the other items of expressive equipment,

the items that we most intimately identify with the performer himself and that we naturally

expect will follow the performer wherever he goes. As part of personal front we may

include: insignia of high office or rank; clothing; sex , age, and racial characteristic; size and

clients expeEt world in this See Taxel, op. master’s th – . uggested that

in a kind of noble x,987-8:

A study oil me that ~ symptoms personal e almost as r having tina satisfaction psychotic r

3 Robert Ezra Park Ibid., 250 .

; Shetland Isle stu Reported in parI PhD dissertation,

6 H . S. Becker and Review, 23, 50-6. A. L. Kroeber, Th, H.E. Dale, The H:

9 David Solomon, De partment of Sc

Kirshenblatt-GimbJ~

Kaprow – the blurri

Fabe r, Harding – th.

Butler – gender as p

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #19

ipeaking, so that

~ot begin their

tenninate their

that the setting

he civic parade,

led, of course,

work between

place for one’s

t’ing room in a identify them

·p ment which

ipment, one

‘e equipment,

t we naturally

front we may

-~=-..~

I :~

PERFORMANCES : BEUEF IN THE PART ONE (S PLAYING

looks; posture; speech patterns; facial expressions; bodily gestures; and the like. Some of

these vehicles for conveying signs, such as racial characteristics, are relatively fixed and

over a span of time do not vary for the individual from one situation to another. On the

other hand, some of these sign vehicles are relatively mobile or transitory, such as facial

expression, and can vary during a performance from one moment to the next.

NOTES

Perhaps the real crime of the confidence man is not that he takes money from victims but that he robs all of us of the belief that middle-class maMers and appearance can be sustained only by middle·c1ass people. A disabused professional can be cynicall y hostile to the service relation his clients expect him to extend to them ; the confidence man is in a position to hold the whole “legit” world in this contempt.

2 See Taxel, op. cit. [Harold Taxel, “Authority structure in a mental hospital ward” (unpublished master’s thesis, Department of SOciology , Unive rsity of Chicago, 1953») , 4. Harry Stack Sullivan has suggested that the tact of institutionalized performers can operate in the other direction, resulting in a kind of noblesse-oblige sanity. See his “Socio-psychiatric research,” American Journal rifPsychiatry, x,987-8:

A study of “social recoveries” in one of our large mental hospitals some years ago taught me that patients were often released from care because they had learned not to manifest symptoms to the environing persons; in other words, had integrated enough of the personal environment to realize the prejudice opposed to their delusions. It seemed almost as if they grew wise enough to be tolerant of the imbecility surrounding them, having finally discovered that it was stupidity and not malice. They could then secure satisfaction from contact with others, while discharging a part of their cravings by psychotiC means.

Rober t Ezra Park, Race and Culture (Glencoe, III. : Free Press, 1950),249. 4 Ibid ., 250. 5 Shetland Isl e study [research conducted by Goifman in a Shetland Island farming community.

Reported in part in Goifman, “Communication conduct in on island community” (unpublished PhD dissertation, Department of Sociology, University of Chicago, 1953») .

6 H.S. Becker and Blanche Greer, “The fate of idealism in medical school,” American SOciological Review, 23, 50-6.

7 A.L. Kroeber, The Nature rifCulture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952),311. 8 H.E . Dale, The Higher Civil Service rifGreat Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1941),50. 9 David Solomon, “Career contingencies of Chicago physicians” (unpublished PhD dissertation,

Department of SOCiology, University of Chicago, 1952), 74.

~ UNCES

Kirshenblatt-Gimblet’ ormance of everyday life

Kaprow – th e blurrin. ,fview

Faber, Harding – the I Butler – gender as pa

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #20

WHAT IS PERFORMANCE?

Marvin Carlson

The term “performance” has become extremely popular in recent years in a wide range

of activities in the arts, in literature, and in the social sciences. As its popularity and usage

have grown, so has a complex body of writing about performance, attempting to analyze and

understand just what sort of human activity it is. For the person with an interest in studying

Performance this bodv of analvsis and commentarv may at first seem more of an obstacle , j j j ,.I than an aid. So much has been vVTitten by experts from such a wide range of disciplines,

and such a complex web of specialized critical vocabulary has been developed in the course

of this analysis, that a newcomer seeking a way into the discussion may feel confused and

overwhelmed.

In their very useful 1990 survey article “Research in interpretation and performance

studies: trends, issues, priorities,” Mary Beverly Long, and Mar; Hopkins begin

with the extremely useful observation that performance is “an essentially contested

concept.” This phrase is taken from W B. Gallie’s Philosoph)” and the Historical UnderstandinB

(1964), in which Gallie suggested that certain concepts, such as art and democracy,

had disagreement about their essence built into the concepts themselves. In Gallie’s terms:

“Recognition of a concept as essentially contested implies recognition of rival uses

of it (such as oneself repudiates) as not only logically possible and humanly ‘likely,’ but as

of permanent potential critical value to one’s own use or interpretation of the concept in

question.”i Long, and Hopkins argue that performance has become just such a

concept, developed in an atmosphere of “sophisticated disagreement” by participants who

“do not expect to defeat or silence opposing positions, but rather through continuing

dialogue to attain a sharper articulation of all positions and therefore a fuller understanding

of the conceptual richness -of performance.,,2 In his study of the “post-structured stage,” Erik MacDonald suggests that “performance art has opened hitherto unnoticed spaces”

within theatre’s representational netl-vorks. It “problematizes its own categorization,” and

thus inevitably inserts theoretical speculation into the theatrical dynamic. J

The prese~t study, recognizing this essential contestedness of performance, will seek to provide an introduction to the continuing dialogue through which it has recently been

articulated, providing a variety of mappings of the concept, some overlapping, others quite

divergent. Recent manifestations of performance, in both theory and practice, are so many

and so varied that a complete survey of them is hardly possible, but this [study] attempts to

offer enough of an

and sample signific

the contested conce

have been develope,

My own backgn

theories about perl

that lie closest to

will not be devotin

that variety of activ

“performance” or “

useful to step back

the term “perforrna

overtones it may b.

I should perhaps ah

other nations, myel

is the center of my (

its international diff

American phenome

how it has develope.

“Performing” and

that little if anv con o

Times and the Village

theatre, dance, or fi

even “performance t

days all .theatre w;

fact one of the so-ca

practice of calling a

event) a “performar

and ask what makes

suggest that these a

whose demonstratiOl

I recently came al

of technical skill is t

in the United States

events at historical si

a kind of activity oj

Northern California

visitors in the roles

Diane Spencer Pritc

period music on the

later she abandoned

and placed it in the

dreSSing in period d

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #21

in a wide range

olarity and usage

og to analyze and terest in studying

Ire of an obstacle

ge of disciplines, ~ in the course

eel confused and

md performance f Hopkins begin ntially contested

iall Understanding and democracy,

in Gallie’s terms:

tion of rival uses

Iy ‘likely,’ but as I)f the concept in

orne just such a

participants who

ough continuing

er understanding

tructured stage,”

nnoticed spaces”

~orization,” and

nce, will seek to

iIS recently been

,ing, others quite

ice, are so many

ndy] attempts to

WHAT IS PERFORMANCE?

offer enough of an overview and historical background to single out the major approaches

and sample significant manifestations in this complex field, to address the issues raised by

the contested concepts of performance and what sorts of theatrical and theoretical strategies

have been developed to deal with these issues.

My own background is in theatre studies, and my emphasis will be on how ideas and

theories about performance have broadened and enriched those areas of human activity

that lie closest to what has traditionally been thought of as theatrical, even though I

will not be devoting a great deal of attention to traditional theatre as such, but rather to

that variety of activities currently being presented for audiences under the general title of

“performance” or “performance art.” Nevertheless, in these opening remarks it might be

useful to step back at least briefly from this emphasis and consider the more general use of

the term “performance” in our culture, in order to gain some ideas of the general semantic

overtones it may bear as it circulates through an enormous variety of specialized usages.

I should perhaps also note that although I will include examples of performance art from

other nations, my emphasis will remain on the United States, partly, of course, because that

is the center of my own experience with this activity, but, more relevantly, because, despite

its international diffusion, performance art is both historically and theoretically a primarily

American phenomenon, and a proper understanding of it must, I believe, be centered on

how it has developed both practically and conceptually in the United States.

“Performing” and “performance” are terms so often encountered in such varied contexts

that little if any common semantic ground seems to exist among them. Both the New York

Times and the Village Voice now include a special category of “performance” – separate from

theatre, dance, or films – including events that are also often called “performance art” or

even “performance theatre.” For many, this latter term seems tautological, since in simpler

days all .theatre was considered to be involved with performance, theatre being in

fact one of the so-called “performing arts.” This usage is still much with us, as indeed is the

practice of calling any specific theatre event (or for that matter specific dance or musical

event) a “performance.” If we mentally step back a moment from this common practice

and ask what makes performing arts performative, I imagine the answer would somehow

suggest that these arts require the physical presences of trained or skilled human beings

whose demonstration of their skills is the performance.

I recently came across a striking illustration of how important the idea of public display

of technical skill is to this traditional concept of “performance.” At a number of locations

in the United States and abroad, people in period costume act out improvised or scripted

events at historical sites for tourists, visiting schoolchildren, or other interested spectators

a kind of activity often called “living history.” One site of such activity is Fort Ross in

Northern California, where a husband and wife, dressed in costumes of the 1830s, greet

visitors in the roles of the last Russian commander of the fort and his wife. The wife,

Diane Spencer Pritchard, in her role as “Elena Rotcheva,” decided at one time to play

period music on the piano to give visitors an impression of contemporary cultural life. But

later she abandoned this, feeling, in her words, that it “removed the role from living-history

and placed it in the category of performance.’,4 Despite taking on a fictive personality,

dressing in period clothes, and “living” in the 1830s, Ms. Pritchard did not consider herself

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #22

__ _

MARVIN CARLSON

“performing” until she displayed the particular artistic skills needed to give a music recital.

Normally human agency is necessary for a “performance” of this sort (even in the theatre

we do not speak of how well the scenery or the costumes performed), but the public

demonstration of particular skills can be offered by nonhuman “performers,” so that, for

example, we commonly speak of “performing” dogs, elephants, horses or bears. 5

Despite the currency of this usage, most of her audience probably considers Ms.

Pritchard to be performing as soon as she greets them in the costume and character of

a long-dead Russian pioneer. Pretending to be someone other than oneself is a common

example of a particular kind of human behavior that Richard Schechner labels “restored

behavior,” a title under which he groups actions consciously separated from the person

doing them theatre and other role playing, trances, shamanism, rituals. 6

Schechner’s

useful concept of “restored behavior” points to a quality of performance not involved with

the display of skills, but rather with a certain distance between “self’ and behavior,

analogous to that between an actor and the role the actor plays on stage. Even if an action

on stage is identical to one in real life, on stage it is considered “performed” and off

stage merely “done.” Hamlet, in his well-known response to the Queen concerning his

reactions to his father’s death, distinguishes between those inner feelings that resist per formance and the actions that a man might play” with a consciousness of their Signifying

potential. Hamlet’s response also indicates how a consciousness of “performance” can move from

the stage, from ritual, or from other special and clearly defined cultural situations into

everyday life. Everyone at some time or another is conscious of “playing a role” SOcially, and

recent sociological theorists [. . .J have paid a good deal of attention to this sort of social performance.

The re~gnition that our lives are structured according to !::~~ and SOcially sa~–..– ~_____…… _~_<7.~~ ~~~A… ,_’c-.~..,_,_v tioneCi modes of behaVIOr raises the possibility that all human activitY£.ould potentially be c~ “performance;;;-C;;:-;;;t least all activity carried out with a conscious~f i~~ Jjfference _~~!:Y~~1~c;aL~~ .eerformi~g1..:E~or~~way of thinking, would seem to be not in the frame of theatre versus real life but in an attitude- we mav do actions uilthlIiEIigIy, but ‘\Vh~nwe~thlnk~boufthem;’fhis introd~~~~~o~sciousness ‘th; gfVeSthem the qualIty of performanc€:””11iiSj)1ien:o~~n~h~~-b~~n perhaps most searchinglJ analyie<llH~afiOus~wrlfffigi;ornerbert Blau, to which we also will return later.

So we have two rather different concepts of performance, rone involving the display of

skills, the other~ng displ~: but less ~f pirticular ski1rs than of a recognized and culturally coded pattern of behavi0:,r third cluster of usages takes us in rather a different

direction. When we speak of someone’s sexual performance or linguistic performance or

when we ask how well a child is performing in school, the emphasiS is not so much on

display of skill (although that may be involved) or on the carrying out of a particular pattern

of behavior, but rather on the general success of the acti.’1ty in light of some standard of

achievement that may not itself be precisely articulated. Perhaps even more significantly, the

task of judging the success of the performance (or even judging whether it is a performance)

is in these cases not the responsibility of the performer but of the observer. Ultimately, Hamlet himself is the best judge of whether he is “performing” his melancholy actions or

truly “living” .

judged by its I in the normal

ads speak inte

of the perforn conflation of .

MTA (Metrop

when the sub’

City’s longest If we coru,l

understand th(

disparate usagl theless, I wou’ occurs in the e

Encyclopedia l’ ness of double

c~n-w Normany this school’s teachE

is what is mos

placing it again audience that 1

case, that audie

When we c cultural scene

in relation to

suggested by th a virtuosic skil

concerned with

the so-called ”

sense of an acti

comes with cor

constantly stru~

Although tra embodied (thro

been centrally

not base their 6wn bodies-;a:;;;

w~rrd, ma~~_~ them for audier ;elf is artlcU\;te presentations. T little of the e!ab

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #23

D give a music recitaL

rt (even in the theatre

::DIed), but the public bmers,” so that, for I 01″ bears. 5

obably considers Ms. .ne and character of

aaeself is a common

:Imer labels “restored -.d from the person rituals.

6 Schechner’s

IDe not involved with

-se.lf’ and behavior, ~ Even if an action

~ormed” and off

IJIIr:en concerning his !lags that resist per _ of their SignifYing

-=e” can move from iIlBral situations into ~arole” SOcially, and ID this sort of social

~ and SOcially s~ could potentially be ~

II a consciousness of

his way of thinking, Ittitnde we may.±;? a consciousness that

• most searchingfy aeturn later.

IIhing the display of _ a recognized and

.. rather a different

IItic performance or I is not so much on

ra particular pattern rX some standard of ore significantly, the it is a performance)

f,gerver. Ultimately,

~lancholy actions or

WHAT IS PERFORMANCE?

truly “living” them, but linguistic, scholastic, even sexual performance is really framed and

judged by its observers. This is why performance in this sense (as opposed to performance

in the normal theatrical sense) can be and is applied frequently to non-human activity TV

ads speak interminably of the performance of various brands of automobiles, and scientists

of the performance of chemicals or metals under certain conditions. I observed an amusing

conflation of the theatrical and mechanical uses of this term in an advertisement by the

MTA (Metropolitan Transportation Authority) on theo~~~,.,:r~r!s~2P~ay ir,t ,Octo~e.!:..!994, when the subway was celebrating ninety years of service. This was bille!.~,~_.’:~ew York City’s longest running performance.” ,

If we consider pcrwr-mance as an essentially contested concept, this will help us to

understand the futility of seeking some overarching semantic field to cover such seemingly disparate usages as the performance of an actor, of a schoolchild, of an automobile. Never

theless, I would like to credit one highly suggestive attempt at such an articulation. This

occurs in the entry on performance by the ethnolinguist Richard Bauman in the International 7

Encyclopedia if’ Communications. ~cording to Bauman all performance ip.~a con§ciQJlS:. ness of doubleness, through which the actual execution of an action is placed in men.!!!

comparisonWith a potential, an ideal, or a remembered original modelTth’;t;ction. Normalty this comParison is made by ~ obse;;; of the’ action the theatre pUhlk;the school’s teacher, the scientist – but the double consciousness, not the external observation,

is what is most central. An athlete, for example, may be aware of his own performance,

plaCing it against a mental standard. Performance is always performance Jor someone, some audience that recognizes and validates it as performance even when, as is occasionally the

case, that audience is the self.

When we consider the various kinds of activity that are referred to on the modern cultural scene as “performance” or performance art,” these are much better understood

in relation to this over-arching semantic field than to the more traditional orientation

suggested by the piano-playing Ms. Pritchard, who felt that so long as she was not displaying a virtuosic skill she could not be “performing.” Some modern “performance” is centrally

concerned with such skills (as in the acts of some of the clowns and jugglers included among

the so-called “new vaudevillians”), but much more central to this phenomenon is the

sense of an action carried outJor someone, an action involved in the peculiar doubling that comes with consciousness and with the elusive “other” that performance is not but which it

constantly struggles in vain to embody. Although traditional theatre has regarded this “other” as a character in a dramatic action,

embodied (through performance) by an actor, modern~or~<.:: ar~ has, in general, not been centrally concerned with this dynamic. Its practitioners, almost by definition, j,? not base their work upon characters previously created by other artists, ?llt _llEont!’t~ir o’Wilf)()(lies-;-thei;: -;;wn~aiitobiographies, thek own s~cific experieiices~ a culture or in the

w~mad~ pe~~<>.~ati~~ ~~~~~~ns’C!”o~~;~~~~I~~m~<!.:th~irocess-a”disEf~Y§g them for audiences. Since the emphasis is upon the performance, and on how the body or ;elf is-articulated~through performance, the individual body remains at the center of such presentations. Typical pe!i0rmance art is solo art,and~~trEical performance artist uses

little of the ..’:.laborate sceniCSi.iiTOun~aditional stage, but at most a fewE!.C>ps,

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #24

MARVIN CARLSON

a bit of furniture, and whatever costume (sometimes even nudi!!.lJ§JWlst suitable. to the eiJQ~c~ituaE~~n. . . ~.~o. ________

It is not surprising that such performance has become a highly “isible one might almost say emblematic art form in the contemporary world, a world that is highly self-conscious, reflexive, obsessed with simulations and theatricalizations in every aspect of its social aware

ness. With performance as a kind of critical wedge, the metaphor of theatricality has moved out of the arts into almost every aspect of modern attempts to understand our condition

and activities, into almost every branch of the human sciences – SOciology, anthropology,

ethnography, psychology, linguistics. And as performativity and theatricality have been developed in these fields, both as metaphors and as analytic tools, theorists and practitioners of performance art have in turn become aware of these developments and found in them

new sources of stimulation, inspiration, and insight for their own creative work and the theoretical understanding of it.

Performance art, a complex and constantly shifting field in its own right, becomes much more so when one tries to take into account, as any thoughtful consideration of it must, the dense web of interconnections that exists between it and ideas of performance

developed in other fields and between it and the many intellectual, cultural, and social concerns that are raised by almost any contemporary performance project. Among them are what it means to be postmodern, the quest for a contemporary subjectivity and identity, the relation of art to structures of power, the varying challenges of gender, race, and ethnicity, to name only some of the most visible of these.

NOTES

WB. Gallie, Philosophy and the Historical Understandins, New York: Schocken Books, t 964, 187-8. 2 Mary S. Strine, Beverly Whitaker Long, and Mary Frances Hopkins, “Research in interpretation

and performance studies: trends, issues, priorities,” in Gerald Phillips and Julia Wood (eds.), Speech Communications: Essays to Commemorate the Seventy-Fifth Anniversa1)’ if the Speech Communication ASSOCiation, Carbondale: Southern lllinois University Press, 1990, 183.

3 Erik MacDonald, Theater at the MaIsins: Text and the Post-Structured Stase, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993, 175.

4 Diane Pritchard, “Fort Ross: from Russia with love,” in Jan Anderson (ed.), A LivinS HiStory Reader, vol. 1, Nashville, Tenn.: American Association for State and Local History, 1991,53.

5 Like most uses of “performance,” this one has been challenged, particularly by the noted semioti cian of the circus Paul Bouissac. Bouissac argues that what seems to be performance is actually an invariable natural response to a stimulus provided by a trainer who “frames” it as performance. In Bouissac’s words, the animal does not “perform,” but “negotiates social situations by relying on the repertory of ritualized behavior that characterizes its species” (“Behavior in context: in what sense is a circus animal performing?,” in Thomas Sebeok and Robert Rosenthal (eds.), The Clever Hans Phenomenon: Communication with Horses, Whales, Apes, and People, New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1981, 24). This hardly settles the matter. As we shall see, many theorists of human performance could generally accept Bouissac’s alternate statement, and moreover anyone who has trained horses or dogs knows that, even accounting for an anthropomorphic bias, these animals are not simply negotiating social situations, but are knOWingly repeating certain actions for physical or

emotional rewan human performa

6 Richard Schechlll 1985,35-116.

7 Richard Bauman Oxford Universi1

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Goffman ~ the prest Faber, Kaprow, Gorr

Parker and Sedgwicl

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #25

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t:II performance hral, and social •Among them are irity and identity, ~er, race, and

lib, 1964, 187-8. i:h in interpretation Julia Wood (eds.), pea:b Communication

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WHAT IS PERFORMANCE?

emotional rewards, a process that, to me at least, seems to have important features in common Vl1th human performance.

6 Richard Schechner, Between Theater and AnthropoloBJ, Philadelphia: UniverSity of Pennsylvania Press, 1985,35-116.

7 Richard Bauman in Erik Barnouw (ed.), lnternational Encyclopedia ‘!I Communications, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.

READER CROSS-REFERENCES

Schechner – performance as an organizing principle for academic inquiry Goffman — the presentation of self in everyday life

Faber, Kaprow, Gomez-Pena, Lane – performance art

Parker and Sed~1ck – the contestedness of the term “performativity”

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #26

PERFORMATIVE ACTS AND GENDER CONSTITUTION

An essay in phenomenology and feminist theory

Judith Butler

Philosophers rarely think about acting in the theatrical sense, but they do have a discourse of “acts” that maintains associative semantic meanings vvith theories of performance and acting. For example, John Searle’s “speech acts,” those verbal assurances and promises which seem not only to refer to a speaking relationship, but to constitute a moral bond between speakers, illustrate one of the illocutionary gestures that constitutes the stage of the analytic philosophy of language. Further, “action theory,” a domain of moral philosophy, seeks to understand what it is “to do” prior to any claim of what one ought to do. Finally, the

phenomenological theory of “acts,” espoused by Edmund Hussed, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and George Herbert Mead, among others, seeks to explain the mundane w~yin ‘Y~£ial

ag~n!~ constitute social realitythr~llgh}~gua~.$~s~ur~,~~~alJmanner of symb.Qlic:~cial ~grr, TIiougn-plienome~ology sometimes appears to assume the existence of a choosing and constituting agent prior to language (who poses as the sole source of its constituting acts), there is also a more radical use of the doctrine of constitution that takes the social agent as

an object rather than the subject of constitutive acts. When Simone de Beauvoir claims, “one is not born, but, rather, becomes a woman,” she is

appropriating and reinterpreting this doctrine of constituting acts from the phenomeno logical tradition. I In this sense, gender is in no way a s,?ble identity or locus of agency from which various acts proceed; rather, it is an identit· fenuousfy constTt~~

id~ty ~tut~ rough~l!~::F~ti!!_o.n if acts. Further, gender,is insti~Il~~~.~~<:J?[h tpe stylization 0 e bo?yand, hence, mus5J)~ und::~::?d a~the~~IIl~<U1e ~ay in which b.odily gestures, movements, and enactments of various.,l,cigd.s consti~Il~_~h~.,mtl~ioI1: of an ~biding gendered self. This formulation moves the conception of gender off the ground of a substantial model of identity to one that requires a conception of a constituted social temporality. Significantly, if gender. is in~ti~tl!!;,<l through acts which are intern”Hy giscon, tinuous, then the appea(a;~e ifsubstance is precis~iy that, a constructed identity, a performa ~accomplishm~I,1L~hi.ch the mtlndane social audience, .ip~luding the actor~ ~e~~elves’, ro.:ne-tohelie~e and toperformjn ,the mode, of belief. If the groun<!,.gf gend~~~..~.

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Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #27

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PERFORMATIVE ACTS AND GENDER CONSTITUTION

s:r:!!zed repetiti0E.~~~:<._~o~h.~~E::’ and_not a see:min{!ly _’___<~_<__'<‘<_~ p2.ssil:>j.li9~~<S.. Qf_gend~E_ tro:~oLmatjp!LID:.~..t9_l?t;: .fm~p’g relation betweel} such acts, in the poss~1!i!L of a_~~[er:.e_l!t sort QLl”ep~a,ti9g,Mi]LtI:e breaking or subversive l’;petition ofthat style.~ <. <~.’

Through the conception of gender acts sketched above, I will try to show some ways in which reified and naturalized conceptions of gender might be understood as constituted and,

hence, capable of being constituted differently. In 9P-P-Q!?ition to theatrical or phenomeno logical models which take the~ndered self to-be pr~-its-acts;-Fwilf understmd Cons~tutiIlg_ac~!~-.n~-on-I-y-a-sc-onstit;;t-in-g-th-‘eldeiitityotThe~E!~-b~t~~_const!~~!0.i_that identity as a compelling ill~~_Q.best:..~ b.~liif. In the course of making my argument, J . .will draw-from theatrical, anthropological and philosophical discourses, but mainly phenomenology, to show that what is called gender identity is a performative accomplish

mel}~ com£.elled ~!?~~.~~~ti~~_~~·~~b()()Jnitsvery cEa;ict7r~; performative~e;ides the possibility~()f (;O]l!~~§ting !!~!:eifie2. s,t<i.tl!s,

~ I Sex) menological views

Feminist theory ha~ explanations of sex and sexuality that assume that thi nce can be derived from some fact

of their physiology :1’, feminist theorists have disputed causal explanationslecessitates certain social meanings for women’s experience. 1 iw ‘” ~ ____ •. human embodiment have also been

concerned to distinguish between the various phYSiological and biological causalities that structure bodily existence and the meaninBs that embodied existence assumes in the context of lived experience. In Merleau-Ponty’s reflections in The Phenomenoloay if Perception on “the body in its sexual being,” he takes issue with such accounts of bodily experience and claims that the body is “an historical idea” rather than “a natural species.”2 Significantly, it is

this claim that Simone de Beauvoir cites in The Second Sex when she sets the stage for her claim that “woman” and, by extension, any gender is an historical situation rather than a natural fact.

In both context’>, the existence and facticity of the material or natural dimensions of the body are not denied, but reconceived as distinct from the process by which the body comes to

bear cultural meanings. For both de Beauvoir ~~~.M<:rleau.-Ponty, the b9dy is understood to

be an active process of e~b~dymgc-er~;~mral arLiill!.>!o..rtgl pgssibilities t a compli~~ed p~s-or;’ppropriation which ~I?h~llQlIleJln1QgicaL_!h~QqJ)t£n:!bQIDJrle;!lt ~eeds ~~ descrwe.IT;”· order ‘to&scribe the gendered body, a phenomenological theory of con SB:tiiBOfi requires an expansion of the conventional view of acts to mean both that which constitutes meaning and that through which meaning is performed or enacted. In other words, the acts by which gender is constituted bear similarities to performative acts within theatrical contexts. My task, then, is to examine in what ways gender is constructed through specific corporeal acts, and what possibilities exist for the cultural transformation of gender

through such acts.

155

Intro to Theater: What is Performance? Page #28

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file 2

World View Chart Writing Assignment

December 16, 2022/in Uncategorized /by SK

FINAL PAPER: World View Chart Writing Assignment

Due Week 10 and worth 235 points

This assignment uses the information you have gathered for your weekly World View Chart Assignments.

Choose ONE (1) category (origin of all things, nature of god, view of human nature, view of good and evil, etc.) from the chart to focus on for this assignment. Consider how the selected category relates to all of the religions covered and to your own social or work experiences.

Write a two to three (2-3) page paper in which you:

Select ONE (1) category from the completed World View Chart. Provide a rationale for choosing this category. What is compelling about this category? Why is it important in the study of religion?
Describe the selected content and explain the significance of the selected category across all of the religions studied. Show in what ways the category is significant for each religion.
Give an example of how you have noticed this category in your life, town or country. What impact does this category have in the everyday lives of people who practice religion in your area? (You do not have to give examples of all the religions in your area, just one you have noticed besides any you practice). For example, in Cincinnati, Ohio we have Hindu, Greek Orthodox, Catholic festivals in the summer. So if my category were “Festivals and Celebrations” I could use those events as my example.
Use at least three (3) quality resources as references for the assignment and document your sources using APA Style for in-text citations and references. Note: Wikipedia and similar Websites do not qualify as quality resources.
Write clearly and coherently using correct grammar, punctuation, spelling, and mechanics.

Your assignment must:

Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.

The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:

Analyze what is meant by religion.
Analyze the similarities and differences in the primary beliefs held by major religious traditions and the cultures in which these religions evolved.
Describe the varieties of religious experience and practice in a wide range of cultures.
Recognize how daily life within various religions and current affairs are influenced by religion.
Develop written pieces that demonstrate an analysis of a topic relevant to the course.
Use technology and information resources to research issues in religion.

Write clearly and concisely about world religions using proper writing mechanics.

REL212 WORLD VIEW CHART
This chart contains all the research you need to write the final paper for this course. If you do the research and reading on the religion(s) we study each week, and if you give yourself a good guide to the religions using this chart, you will have a good foundation for that final paper. The more information you provide for yourself with this chart, the easier it will be to write your final paper. Do not forget to provide adequate material for any in-text citations and be sure to include a reference page as well. On the left-hand side of the chart are the categories and the content to be discussed. Complete and submit the following chart. Provide citations for any source(s) you used to explain or provide examples for in your research. List in APA Style full references for any in-text citations and source(s) made in the above chart. Use full sentences and correct grammar, etc..
Student Name:
RELIGION(S) OF THE WEEK	Provide your response in this column.
· State the name of the Religion being addressed in this chart. · Please address ONLY ONE (1) religion per chart. If there is more than one religion for the week, do two charts.	Hinduism
ORIGIN OF ALL THINGS	Provide your response in this column.
Every religion has a cosmology/cosmogony to explain its view of the universe and the place of humans in it. Explain the cosmology/cosmogony for this week’s religion. Explain how it is manifested in the subsequent worldview that develops for that religion.	Cycles – Lord Vishnu calmed by the snake, woke lotus, and grew with Brahma in it. Lord told Brahma to create the world. Brahma calmed the winds, stilled the waves, and brought peace. Brahma Split the lotus into three parts, heavens, earth, skies. Three lords, one god but called different things by his action, when God creates, it is called Brahma, Comment by Grammarly: Deleted:go Comment by Grammarly: Deleted:3 Comment by Grammarly: Deleted:g
NATURE OF GOD/CREATOR	Provide your response in this column.
In what way does this religion have a God or gods? How does this worship of deity/deities reflect the cosmology of the religion? If the religion has no God/gods, in what way does this absence reflect their cosmology?	Three major groups, Shaktas, Shaivites, and Vaishnavites – Vishnu, Krishna, Siva, Kali, Ganesh
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE	Provide your response in this column.
· State how this religion views human beings. What is human nature according to this religion? Why does the view of human nature matter? · If you cannot identify how this religion defines human beings, suggest as to why it doesn’t. Comment by Grammarly: Deleted:offer a Comment by Grammarly: Deleted:ion	Based on the Vedas.
VIEW OF GOOD & EVIL	Provide your response in this column.
· State how this religion defines the concept of good and evil. · How does this definition or understanding impact the way adherents to the religion live their daily lives?	Karma, action, and consequences. Every act and every thought and every desire we have shapes our future experiences. Our life is what we Comment by Grammarly: Deleted:, have made it. And we are shaped by what we have done: Comment by Grammarly: Deleted: ourselves
VIEW OF SALVATION	Provide your response in this column.
· All religions suggest that human beings are faced with a “problem” that needs to be overcome. What is the “problem” this religion identifies? Is this problem intrinsic or extrinsic for the person? Is it individually manifested or is it a collective problem?	There are many paths to salvation. They strive to achieve moksha or liberation from Comment by Grammarly: Deleted:, Comment by Grammarly: Deleted: t The limitations of space, time, and matter through the realization of the immortal- absolute Comment by Grammarly: Deleted:t Comment by Grammarly: Deleted:l A
VIEW OF AFTERLIFE	Provide your response in this column.
· What does this religion teach about “what comes next” after all is said and done? In what do adherents of this religion place their hope for any future life or existence? Describe the impact this belief or non-belief impacts the person daily life and the structures of society. With such a view of the after-life, what type of societal structures or institutions would we expect to develop in the culture?	Reincarnation
PRACTICES AND RITUALS	Provide your response in this column.
· How do members of this religion “practice” their “faith?” · What ceremonies, or rituals, do they use to help pass this religion on to the next generation? If you cannot identify how this religion is practiced, suggest as to why it doesn’t have any rituals or practices. Comment by Grammarly: Deleted:offer a Comment by Grammarly: Deleted:ion	Puja – Public worship. Ritual fire ceremonies around a haven or sacred fire.
CELEBRATIONS AND FESTIVALS	Provide your response in this column.
· Identify one or two celebrations and/or festivals that members of this religion use to express their beliefs in public, or in private. Why do religions develop celebrations and/or festivals? How are these different from practices and rituals?	Diwali with lights and fireworks Holi – Death of winter, the return of spring, Krishna’s birthday I s also celebrated, the honoring of Ganesh, there are 16 festival holiday are honored by the government Comment by Grammarly: Deleted:’s

Reading Review 1: Functional Decomposition

December 16, 2022/in Uncategorized /by SK

Compare and contrast the following two articles (2 pages max). Use APA format.

Stone – Development of a Functional Basis for Design.pdf

Umeda – Supporting Conceptual Design Based on the Function-Behavior-State Modeler.pdf

Here is the content I am looking for

Synthesis of the articles. This is not a summary of the articles but explanation of the “take-away” from the articles.
How the articles relate to one another.
How do the articles relate to your project or how can you use them in your project.
Your opinion of the articles. Are they well written? Do you think the content is fair/valid/appropriate?

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Robert B. Stone Department of Basic Engineering,

University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, MO 65409

e-mail: rstone@umr.edu

Kristin L. Wood Department of Mechanical Engineering,

The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712

e-mail: wood@mail.utexas.edu

Development of a Functional Basis for Design Functional models represent a form independent blueprint of a product. As with blueprint or schematic, a consistent language or coding system is required to en others can read it. This paper introduces such a design language, called a funct basis, where product function is characterized in a verb-object (function-flow) for The set of functions and flows is intended to comprehensively describe the mech design space. Clear definitions are provided for each function and flow. The funct basis is compared to previous functional representations and is shown to subsume attempts as well as offer a more consistent classification scheme. Applications t areas of product architecture development, function structure generation, and d information archival and transmittal are discussed.@S1050-0472~00!00704-2#

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1 Introduction Functional modeling is a key step in the product design proc

whether original or redesign. This article reports on an induct approach to create a common design language for use with f tional models, focusing primarily on the mechanical and elec mechanical domains. The common design language is term functional basis. It allows designers to describe a product’s ove function as a set of simpler sub-functions while showing th connectivity. With such a set, designers can communicate pro function in a universal language.

Several factors motivate the creation of a functional basis mechanical design. In particular, use of the functional basis scribed in this article significantly contributes to the following s product design areas.

• Product architecture development. The desire to move the product architecture decision~i.e. modular vs. integral! earlier in the conceptual design stage necessitates basing the decision functional model of the product@1,2#. A modular architecture is then formed by grouping sub-functions from a functional mo ~such as a function structure! together to form modules. The mod ules identify opportunities for function sharing by compone and lead to alternative layouts where concept generation t niques may be used to embody the layouts. To systematic explore product architecture possibilities across a wide variet products, a common functional design language is needed.

• Systematic function structure generation. The most common criticism of functional models~particularly their graphical repre sentation known as a function structure! is that a given product does not have a unique representation. Even within a system function structure generation methodology, different design can produce differing function structures. A common set of fu tions and flows~the ‘‘connectivity’’ of the product’s function! significantly reduces this occurrence. It also provides a consis basis for developing high-level physical models, and for teach the abstract concepts of functional modeling to engineers.

• Archival and transmittal of design information. Products are transient; their service lives range from days to hundreds of ye but are nevertheless transient. The design process behind a uct is even more fleeting. The creation of each new prod though, adds to the collective design knowledge and needs t recorded in a consistent manner. A functional model is an ex lent way to record and communicate design information. To do consistently, a common set of functions and flows with clear~and timeless! definitions is necessary.

Contributed by the Design Theory and Methodology Committee for publicatio the JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL DESIGN. Manuscript received August 1999. Asso ciate Technical Editor: Jonathan Cagan.

Copyright © 2Journal of Mechanical Design

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• Comparison of product functionality. Few product designs are truly ‘‘original.’’ Instead, they incorporate elements of oth product designs that have accumulated in the corporate bod design knowledge. If functional descriptions of products, e pressed in a common language, are accumulated in a repos then that repository can be searched to find products simila function. This offers obvious applications to benchmarking pro ucts and searching for form solutions.

• Creativity in concept generation. The ability to decompose a design task is fundamental to arriving at creative solutions@3#. Likewise, it is critical to represent abstract and incomplete inf mation to make decisions early in a design process or prod development. Functional models, with the addition of a functio basis, significantly aid the capacity of design teams to break p lems down and make critical early decisions.

• Product metrics, robustness, and benchmarks. An important aspect of product development is to formulate objective meas for benchmarking and quality endeavors. Functional models greatly enhance methods, such as Quality Function Deploym in identifying and choosing metrics. The flows or connections functional models provide a high-level physical model of a pro uct’s technical process. These flows, if suitably formalized, directly measurable, reducing the guesswork and artistic natur choosing metrics.

The scope of this article is limited to the functional modelin portion of conceptual design. Section 2 provides a glossary common functional modeling terms. In Section 3, we review design research leading up to the functional basis, which is sented in Section 4. A functional modeling methodology is giv in Section 5 to demonstrate the placement of the functional b within the design process. However, the functional basis for m chanical design presented in this article can be used across m methodologies. The end result is always a functional model o product expressed in a common design language, as the exa in Section 6 demonstrates.

2 Glossary of Terms The following terms are used throughout the article in refere

to various parts of the design process. They are defined here clarity.

Product function: the general input/output relationship of product having the purpose of performing an overall task, ty cally stated in verb-object form.

Sub-function: a description of part of a product’s overall tas ~product function!, stated in verb-object form. Sub-functions a decomposed from the product function and represent the m elementary tasks of the product.

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Function: a description of an operation to be performed by device or artifact, expressed as the active verb of the sub-func

Flow: a change in material, energy or signal with respect time. Expressed as the object of the sub-function, a flow is recipient of the function’s operation.

Functional model: a description of a product or process in term of the elementary functions that are required to achieve its ove function or purpose.

Function structure: a graphical form of a functional mode where its overall function is represented by a collection of s functions connected by the flows on which they operate.

Functional basis: a design language consisting of a set of fun tions and a set of flows that are used to form a sub-function.

3 Background

3.1 Functional Modeling. In function-based design meth odologies, functional modeling of a device is a critical step in design process@4,5#. The systematic approach of Pahl and Be @4# and Hubka@6#, which represents European schools of desi has spawned many variant methodologies in recent American sign literature@3,7–13#. Similarly, the field of value engineering has significantly advanced our understanding of basic functio especially with respect to economic measures@14–16#. Regard- less of the variation on methodology, all functional modeling b gins by formulating the overall product function. By breaking t overall function of the device into small, easily solved su functions, the form of the device follows from the assembly of sub-function solutions.

The lack of a precise definition forsmall, easily solved sub functionscasts doubt on the effectiveness of prescriptive des methodologies such as those by Pahl and Beitz@4#, Ullman @3#, and Ulrich and Eppinger@7# among engineers in more analytic fields. For instance, within a given methodology how does o reconcile different functional models of a product generated different designers? Typically, such differences arise from sem tics or poor identification of product function. The development a standard set of functions and flows~referred to here as a func tional basis, others may call it a function taxonomy! and a sys- tematic approach to functional modeling offers the best cas erase remaining doubt.

3.2 From Value Engineering to Functional Basis. Much of the recent work on a functional basis stems from the result value engineering research that began in the 1940s@14–16#. Value analysis seeks to express the sub-functions of a product a action verb-object pair and assign a fraction of a product’s cos each sub-function. Sub-function costs then direct the design e ~specifically, the goal is to reduce the cost of high value s functions!. However, there is no standard list of action verbs a objects. Recognizing that a common vocabulary for design necessary to accurately communicate helicopter failure infor tion, Collins et al.@17# develop a list of 105 unique mechanic functions. Here, the mechanical functions are limited to helicop systems and do not utilize any classification scheme.

As systematic, function-based design methodologies gained fluence, the development of function taxonomies continued. N though, the development is based on the related needs for a stopping point in the functional modeling process and, henc consistent level of functional detail. Pahl and Beitz@4# list five generally valid functions and three types of flows, but they are a very high level of abstraction. Hundal@18# formulates six func- tion classes complete with more specific functions in each cl though does not claim to have an exhaustive list of mechan design functions. Another approach uses the 20 subsystem r sentations from living systems theory to represent mechanica sign functions@19#. Malmqvist et al. @20# compare the Sovie Union era design methodology known as the Theory of Inven Problem Solving~TIPS! with the Pahl and Beitz methodology TIPS uses a set of 30 functional descriptions to describe all

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chanical design functions@21#. Malmqvist et al. note that the de tailed vocabulary of TIPS would benefit from a more carefu structured class hierarchy using the Pahl and Beitz functions a highest level. Kirschman and Fadel@22# propose four basic me chanical functions groups, but vary from the standard verb-ob sub-function description popular with most methodologies. Ho ever, this work appears to be the first attempt at creating a c mon vocabulary of design that leads to common functional m els of products.

Building on the above work, the concept of a functional basis described in this paper, significantly extending our previous search@13,23,24#. A functional basis is a standard set of functio and flows capable of describing the mechanical design space~for our focus!. Our work expands the set of functions and grou them into eight classes. Also, for the first time, a definition f each function is given. This initial functional basis subsumes other classification schemes discussed above along with th basic sub-functions found in TIPS. It is from this point that t functional basis in this article picks up. Accepting the functions Little, we add a standard list of flows with definitions in Section

3.3 Design Knowledge Archival. In addition to conceptual design work, functional models represent a means of archiv and communicating design knowledge. Augmented with ot product specific data, such as a component to function map, formance specifications and/or customer needs, a functio model represents a concise body of design knowledge. Altshu @21# recognized that patents provided a valuable store of de knowledge while developing TIPS, but are not easy to search categorize. Currently, product databases are being developed facilitate easier search and retrieval of product design knowled all based on a standard set of functions and flows@25–27#.

4 An Inductive Functional Basis The functional basis is a tool for use in generating a functio

model in product design. Many different design methodologi which include a functional decomposition component, are m tioned briefly in Section 3. Purposely, no detailed description any one method is given prior to the introduction of the function basis. By doing so, we hope to emphasize the broad-based a cability of the functional basis. Regardless of the specific te nique used to create a functional model~such as a hierarchica decomposition or task listing approach!, the basis identifies when an overall function is decomposed to asmall, easily solvablesub- function and, thus, provides a common level of detail. Implied this is the representation of product function in a common l guage, eliminating semantic confusion.

The only requirement of the functional basis is that functio ~both overall and sub-! must be expressed as a verb-object pa The basis functions fill the verb spot and the basis flows prov the object. Next, the functional basis flows and functions are p sented. In each case, the logic behind the classification sch and the usage rules are given. Finally, several previous func taxonomies are compared to and shown to be subsumed by functional basis.

4.1 Flows. An essential component of any functional mo eling approach is the representation of the quantities that are i and output by functions. These quantities~or entities! are known as flows. This research has developed formal representation flows through a careful study of many fields within the physic and natural sciences. Analogies have also been adopted from modeling approaches, such as dynamics and bond graphs. results of these studies have then been applied to hundred products as part of this research. Reverse engineering exerc product development, and industrial applications have serve the vehicles for the product applications.

Energy, matter and information are considered basic conc in any design problem@4#. It is the flow of these three concept that concerns designers. Matter is better represented as mat

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Information is more concretely expressed as a signal. Sign in actuality, are either flows of material or energy, but rece a special classification because their function is to ca information.

All design problems deal with these three basic flows, bu seldom advances the design solution to deal with flows at highest level. We specify these flows more accurately to form vocabulary of standardized flows of the functional basis. T functional basis flows are shown in Table 1.

General Functional Basis Flow Usage. The representation of flows carries critical physical information about a produc technical system. It is possible to represent flow at such a h level of abstraction that little meaning can be derived. Likewise natural language, such as English, provides too vast a rang possible descriptors, so that ambiguity and redundancies arise. We address these issues through the development of classes, in addition to refinements within each class.

Within each flow class, flows are broken into basic and s basic flows. In practice, a basic flow is described by a ba descriptor1its class. For example,human energyis a basic flow. Sub-basic flows are described by a sub-basic descriptor1its class. An example is the flowauditory signal. Basic and sub-basic flow may be further specified by adding a complement. Here the fl description is formed by a basic~or sub-basic! descriptor1a complement. A more specific description of thehuman energy used by a product such as a power screwdriver ishuman force. A few special cases exist where complements stand alone in des ing a flow. Stand alone complements are denoted by a gray b ground. Taking an engine, for example, we may be intereste the torque produced by the engine~instead of the more cumber somerotational torque!.

The degree of specification depends on the type of design customer needs~and process choices resulting from custom needs!. Using a more general flow description produces a gen function structure and, thus, a wider range of concept varia However, if customer needs dictate concreteness in flows, the increasingly specific complement is more valuable. Another

Table 1 Flow classes, basic and sub-basic flows and comple- ments †28‡. Complements with gray backgrounds may be treated as stand alone objects in the verb-object pair.

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of the flow set~and function set in the following sub-section! is to compare different devices on a functional level. In this case, flows ~and functions! should be expressed in their basic catego zation to capture similarities between devices. The possible le of specification are depicted schematically in the bottomUsage and Degree of Specificationportion of Table 1.

An Inclusive Case: Human Flow. Considering the materia and energy classes, both have basic flows of ‘‘human.’’ The portance in human crossing of device boundaries merits this cial inclusion. Often the requirement of human interaction known at an early stage of design. By its specification, it w guide the design to appropriate solutions faster.

Signal Flow Particulars. Signals, while in actuality either material or energy, receive their own class because their role carry information. Here, signals are treated as two basic flo used for conveying status or control information.

Energy Flow Particulars. Energy flow complements are di vided into effort and flow analogies based on energy-~or power-! based modeling methods, such as contained in the bond g literature @29#. These complements are shown in the final tw columns of Table 1. Only one of the complements is used further specify a basic or sub-basic energy flow. The energy fl complements are labeled as effort and flowanalogies. Not every basic energy flow in Table 1 will have power as the product of effort and flow analogies, as would a true power-based effort flow product. The effort and flow analogies’ product is scalable power, though. The effort and flow analogies were created cause they provide a consistent categorization of flows, elimin ing confusion when increasing specification is needed. They identify variables that are important in future analysis. For stance, in a hand held power screwdriver, is the relevant flow of the motorangular velocityor torque? Of course both exist, bu torque is the correct choice to describe the situation because effort is the more important output of the power screwdriv based on the primary customer need of inserting screws ea When mathematical models of the device are created, a form tion for the output torque will be required as expressed by function structure.

Definitions of Functional Basis Flows. Not only is a consis- tent division of basic flows necessary, but also a clear definit for all flows. Flow definitions are given in Appendix A. For ma terials, basic physics provides suitable definitions. The ene class is specified further by a bond graph approach of ef and flows @29–32#. Signals are defined from a human facto standpoint@33#.

4.2 Functions. As with flows, functions are formalized through a study of past methods, in addition to the patents other literature. Through these studies, the functions have b used to represent hundreds of products, both redesigns and o nal developments.

The function classes used in the functional basis are give Table 2. The first column lists the eight function classes. Th classes are extended to include basic functions in the second umn. The third column lists functions that are only valid wh used with an appropriate flow. For example, the functiontransmit is limited to use with the flow classes energy and signal and function transport is used with the flow class material. The la column lists synonyms for the basic functions. These are te that commonly appear in non-basis function structures and ai transforming a function structure. Definitions and examp for each of the functional basis functions are presented Appendix B.

Alternative Uses of the Verb-Object Format. A functional basis function always occupies the verb position of the stand verb-object sub-function description. However, the verb-obj format may be applied more liberally for some basic functio

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Table 2 Function classes, basic functions and synonyms †23,24‡. Repeated synonyms are italicized.

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such asallow DOF, couple, mixand convert. Such extensions provide for more expressiveness in the representation, as indic by these four functions as outlined below~followed by simple examples!.

allow DOF: allow flow DOF ~Ex.: allow rotational energy DOF!

convert: convert flow1 to flow2 ~Ex.: convert electrical en- ergy to mechanical energy!

mix(couple): mix(couple)flow1 andflow2 ~Ex.: mix solid and liquid!

4.3 Comparison of Functional Basis with Other Taxono- mies. Three function and flow taxonomies are compared to functional basis in Fig. 1. Pahl and Beitz suggest high level fu tions and flows. The set of functions and flows become m detailed as Hundal refines them. The number of function clas increases from five to six and 38 basic functions are develop The functional basis expands the number of function classe eight, but reduces the total number of basic functions to Though Hundal lists more basic functions, some are redund and therefore removed in the functional basis. For example, H dal’s convert class uses eight basic functions to do what one d in the functional basis. Consider a kitchen blender. In Hunda taxonomy, one of its subfunctions might beliquefy material. The functional basis describes the sub-function asconvert solid to liq- uid. Now, consider an ice maker unit of a refrigerator. Hunda taxonomy would list the freezing sub-function assolidify mate- rial . The functional basis again uses the convert sub-function describe the action asconvert liquid to solid. The lines of Fig. 1 show how Hundal’s taxonomy subsumes Pahl and Beitz’s h level set and, subsequently, how the functional basis subsu Hundal’s taxonomy.

Fig. 1 Comparison of earlier function taxonomies with the functional basis. TIPS 30 function descriptions are also represented as functions and flows and shown to be subsumed by the functional basis. The taxonomies to the left of the functional basis column have evolved from function-based design methodolo- gies while the TIPS was an independent development from the Soviet Union.

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The functional descriptions of TIPS are also subsumed by functional basis. The 30 functional descriptions are broken i function and flow sets and then grouped according to functio basis classes~shown in Fig. 1!. Note the large number of TIPS functions associated with the control magnitude class. This is c sistent with the Altshuller’s casting of design problems as a s tem conflict to be resolved or controlled.

In short, the functional basis subsumes previous taxonom and offers a more complete and consistent set of functions flows that is nonredundant. Coupled with the clear definitions deficiency of other taxonomies noted by previous researchers~see Sec. 3.2!, the functional basis offers the potential of a univers design language.

5 Functional Model Derivation Incorporating the Functional Basis

This section details a specific methodology to derive a fu tional model using the functional basis of Section 4. It consists three tasks and is presented with an example to clarify concepts.

5.1 Task 1: Generate Black Box Model. The first task of the functional model derivation is to create a Black Box mode graphical representation of product function with input/outp flows. The overall function of the product is expressed in ve object form. The input/output flows are most easily establish after the development of a set of customer needs for the prod Systematic and repeatable techniques for gathering custo needs are well described in literature@3,7,13,34#. This task relates the customer needs to the functional model. Each customer

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identifies one or more input or output flows for the product. The flows, in turn, directly address the specific customer need.

In general, customer needs only identify input or output flow not flows internal to the product. The level of detail at whic input/output flows are identified at this point depends upon type of design undertaken. In redesign, the flows are typically w defined and benefit from the use of precise descriptions. Howe in a conceptual design problem, flows may be listed more ge ally ~even asmaterial, energyand signal! and refined as the de sign concepts develop.

An example Black Box model for a consumer power scre driver is shown in Fig. 2. Note that the system boundary cho treats the bit as an input flow. This choice was based on customer need of interchangeable bits. Flows are represe rather specifically since the power screwdriver is an exist product.

5.2 Task 2: Create Function Chains for Each Input Flow. For each input flow, Task 2 develops a chain of sub-functions

Fig. 2 A Black Box model for a power screwdriver

Fig. 3 Examples of two function chains for a power screwdriver. „a… A sequential function chain for the flow of electricity and torque . „b… A parallel function chain for the flow of human force .

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operate on the flow. Here, the designer must ‘become the flo Think of each operation on the flow from entrance until exit of t product ~or transformation to another flow! and express it as a sub-function in verb-object form. If a flow is transformed to a other type, then follow the operations on the transformed fl until it exits the product. Examples of two function chains for t power screwdriver are shown in Fig. 3. In Fig. 3~a!, a function chain for the flow electricity is developed. By ‘becoming the flow,’ the designer realizes that five sub-functions operate onelec- tricity before it is converted totorque. Four additional sub- functions then act ontorque before it exits the product boundary

Subtask 2A: Express Sub-Functions in a Common Functio Basis. The function chains~and the subsequent function model! are expressed in the standard vocabulary of the functio basis. Using the definitions provided in Appendices A and functions and flows~from Tables 1 & 2! are combined in verb- object form to describe a sub-function. Expressing a functio model in functional basis form provides the general benefit repeatable function structures among different designers. Fur more it offers a standard level of detail for functional models means of verifying the consistency and correctness of the phy system, and an important stepping stone for education.

Subtask 2B: Order Function Chains With Respect to Tim Next, the functional model is ordered with respect to time. Tra tional decomposition techniques, like the Pahl & Beitz meth trace flows through sub-functions without regard for the dep dence of sub-functions on a specific order. Ulrich & Eppinger@7#, though, note that task dependencies for product development cesses are either parallel, sequential or coupled with respe time. Here we extend the concept of parallel and sequential pendencies to sub-functions and flows of a functional model each case, the dependencies are defined with respect to a flow.

In sequential function chains, the sub-functions must be pe formed in a specific order to generate the desired result. A fl common to all these functions is termed asequential flow. For the power screwdriver, the flowelectricity produces a sequentia function chain in Fig. 3~a!. Here, five sub-functions must opera on the flow of electricity in a specific order to obtain the desir result of usable electrical energy.

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Parallel function chainsconsist of sets ofsequential function chainssharing one or more common flows. Graphically, they a represented by a flow which branches in a functional model. C lectively, the chains are calledparallel because they all depend o a common sub-function and flow, but are independent of e other. Independence means that any one of the chains of the allel function chain set does not require input from any oth chain within the set. Physically, the parallel function chains re resent different components of a device that may operate a once or individually. Figure 3~b! shows an example of a paralle function chain for the power screwdriver. In it, the flowhuman force branches to form parallel chains of sub-functions. The fo chains operate independent of each other~the first is concerned with the insertion and removal of the screw bit, the second de with the manual use of the screwdriver, the third transmits weight of the product and the fourth actuates the device!.

5.3 Task 3: Aggregate Function Chains Into a Functional Model. The final task of functional model derivation is to ag gregate all of the function chains from Task 2 into a single mod It may be necessary to connect the distinct chains together. action may require the addition of new sub-functions or their co bination, defining the interfaces of modules within the represen tion. The aggregated functional model for the previously d cussed power screwdriver is shown in Fig. 4. Note that b function chains from Fig. 3 are present and that links betwe flows of bit and screware added. Also, the actuate electricity le of the human forceparallel chain is combined with theelectricity sequential chain.

The result of the derivation is a functional model of a produ expressed in the functional basis. With such a functional mo functions may be directly related to customer needs, products their functional representations may be directly compared, prod families may be identified, product functions may be prioritize and direct component analogies may be generated within and side product classes.

6 Example As an example application of the functional basis, two fun

tional models of a hot air popcorn popper are compared; on generated by a design team without any knowledge of the fu

Fig. 4 The functional model for a power screwdriver

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tional basis and the second is generated by the authors with standard vocabulary of the functional basis. The hot air popc popper represents a product that handles a wide array of input output flows and, thus, requires a broad language to describ function. The product is shown in Fig. 5.

The unstructured functional model of the popcorn popper shown in Fig. 6~referred to as FM A henceforth! and the func- tional basis model is shown in Fig. 7~referred to as FM B hence forth!. Note that FM B is less complex overall with fewer sub functions than FM A~21 vs. 25!. This reduction in complexity is made possible by the standard set of functions and flows standard level of detail of the functional basis. For other produ tasks, the conversion with the functional model may actually crease the number of sub-functions. In such cases, the mod being made more consistent and physically correct. Next, compare the two functional models flow by flow.

Flow: Air „Gas…. In FM A, the popcorn poppercaptures, stores, moves, channelsand heatsthe air before it splits to dea with the popcorn and butter subassemblies. FM B offers a sim description of this process. Based on the function definitions, product does notstore air. The sub-functionsmove airand chan- nel air in FM A are described bytransport air in FM B, produc-

Fig. 5 The hot air popcorn popper discussed in this example

Fig. 6 Functional model of the hot air popcorn popper gener- ated without a structured vocabulary „FM A…

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ing a further reduction in total sub-functions and a more consis level of detail. Also, note that FM B uses the flowgasto describe the air. This generalization allows the popcorn popper’s functio model to be compared with other products that operate on ga opening up design by analogy opportunities.

Flow: Electricity. In both models, electricity enters the sy tem ~access powerin FM A, import electricityin FM B! and then splits to power the heating and forced air subsystems. For heating subsystem, FM A presents an overly specific chain sub-functions:convert electricity to heat, heat resistorsand heat air. Whereas the use of the flowelectricity indicates a process choice ~i.e. electrical energy vs., say, hydraulic energy! the sub- function heat resistorsindicates a form solution, which should no be present in a functional model. The functional basis preve this in FM B by generating the sub-function chainconvert elec- tricity to thermal energyand transmit thermal energy.

For the forced air subsystem, FM A again gives an overly s cific level of detail. The conversion of electricity to its eventu form of pneumatic kinetic energy requires five sub-functions. F B describes this in two sub-functions at a more consistent leve detail.

Flow: Kernels „Solid…. The sub-function chain dealing with the kernels~which eventually become popcorn! are similar in both models. FM A uses two sub-functions~fluidize popcorn and chan- nel popcorn! to do what the functional basis defines astransport solid in FM B. FM B also refers to the kernel and popcorn solids in its more general sub-function descriptions.

Flow: Butter „Solid & Liquid …. FM A develops a four sub- function chain to operate on the flow of butter:receive butter, store butter, heat butterand store butter. The two store butter sub-functions imply that the same function is needed twice. fact, as FM B shows in its five sub-function chain~import solid, store solid, convert solid to liquid, store liquidandexport liquid!, these are two different functions—storeliquid and storesolid. This is an instance where FM B provides more detail than FM but at a consistent level.

Example Summary. In sum, this example illustrates two ke advantages of the functional basis: a consistent level of detail semantic uniformity. The standard vocabulary of the functio basis provides a consistent level of detail in sub-function desc tion. This eliminates the proclivity of a design team to bias functional model with form solutions. The function and flow de nitions offer semantic uniformity. For example, FM A uses thr

Fig. 7 Functional model of the hot air popcorn popper gener- ated using the functional basis „FM B…

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different function words to describe the act of bringing in a flo to the system:access, captureandreceive. This is the same func- tion, more aptly namedimport in the functional basis. By arriving at this consistent representation, analogies across many pro domains may be sought that solve the import function. Likew design histories may be archived and retrieved for future use study.

7 Concluding Remarks The functional basis provides a common design language

can be used to model the functionality of products or proces Our current focus is to develop a functional modeling langua for human analysis and communication. In the future, a form computable form of the functional basis is desired. The adop of the functional basis will allow different designers to share formation at the same level of detail, to generate repeatable f tion structures, and to compare functionality of different produ for idea generation purposes. All of these features contribute t overall goal of formulating engineering design as a set of syst atic and repeatable principles and as a teachable content area are not advocating, here, that design does not include artistic creative aspects. Such aspects are at the core of product de Instead, we are advocating a position where many tasks in de may be executed in a systematic and repeatable manner. Fo isms such as a functional basis aid in making methods system and repeatable, enhancing the innovations that may be gener

While the inductive functional basis presented here is inten to span the entire mechanical design space, future efforts sh address its validity regardless of product scale and its applicab to disciplines outside of mechanical design. The products inclu in this research have been small to medium scale, across a va of industries. Large scale systems, such as automobiles, airc and the like are on the horizon.

Acknowledgments The authors appreciate the careful review of this work by

Rob Redfield, US Air Force Academy. In addition, this work supported by the National Science Foundation under a N Young Investigator Award, Ford Motor Company, Deskt Manufacturing Corporation, Texas Instruments, W.M. Ke Foundation, the June and Gene Gillis Endowed Faculty Fellow Manufacturing and the University of Missouri Research Boa Any opinions or findings of this work are the responsibility of th authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponso collaborators.

Appendix A: Flow Definitions The set of flow definitions that follow is part of the function

basis described in Section 4. A flow from this list is selected to the object position of the verb-object functional descriptio Flows in the functional basis are more abstract representation the actual problem’s flows. The given definitions make the tra formation from actual flow to basis flow more methodical a repeatable. An example of the flow usage follows each definit

1 Material

~a! Human. All or part of a person who crosses the devi boundary. Example: Most coffee makers require the flow a human handto actuate~or start! the electricity and thus heat the water.

~b! Solid. Any object with mass having a definite, firm shap Example: The flow of sand paper into a hand sande transformed into asolid entering the sander.

~c! Liquid . A readily flowing fluid, specifically having its mol- ecules moving freely with respect to each other, but cause of cohesive forces, not expanding indefinitely. E ample: The flow of water through a coffee maker is liquid.

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~d! Gas. Any collection of molecules which are characterize by random motion and the absence of bonds between molecules. Example: An oscillating fan moves air by rota ing blades. The air is transformed asgas flow.

2 Energy

~a! Human. Work performed by a person on a device. E ample: An automobile requires the flow ofhuman energyto steer and accelerate the vehicle. i. Force. Human effort that is input to the system withou

regard for the required motion. Example:Human force is needed to actuate the trigger of a toy gun.

ii. Motion . Activity requiring movement of all or part of the body through a prescribed path. Example: T trackpad on a laptop computer receives the flow human motionto control the cursor.

~b! Acoustic. Work performed in the production and transmi sion of sound. Example: The motor of a power drill gene ates the flow ofacoustic energyin addition to the torque. i. Pressure. The pressure field of the sound waves. E

ample: A condenser microphone has a diaphra which vibrates in response toacoustic pressure. This vibration changes the capacitance of the diaphrag thus superimposing an alternating voltage on the dir voltage applied to the circuit.

ii. Particle velocity. The speed at which sound wave travel through a conducting medium. Example: Son devices rely on the flow ofacoustic particle velocityto determine the range of an object.

~c! Biological. Work produced by or connected with plants animals. Example: In poultry houses, grain is fed to chic ens which is then converted intobiological energy. i. Pressure. The pressure field exerted by a compress

biological fluid. Example: The high concentration o sugars and salts inside a cell causes the entry, via mosis, of water into the vacuole, which in turn expan the vacuole and generates a hydrostaticbiological pressure, called turgor, that presses the cell membra against the cell wall. Turgor is the cause of rigidity living plant tissue.

ii. Volumetric flow . The kinetic energy of molecules in biological fluid flow. Example: Increased metabolic a tivity of tissues such as muscles or the intestine au matically induces increasedvolumetric flowof blood through the dilated vessels.

~d! Chemical. Work resulting from the reactions by whic substances are produced from or converted into other s stances. Example: A battery converts the flow ofchemical energyinto electrical energy. i. Affinity . The force with which atoms are held togeth

in chemical bonds. Affinity is proportional to the chemical potential of a compound’s constituent sp cies. Example: An internal combustion engine tran forms thechemical affinityof the gas into a mechanica force.

ii. Reaction rate. The speed or velocity at which chem cal reactants produce products. Reaction rate is prop tional to the mole rate of the constituent species. E ample: Special coatings on automobile panels s the chemical reaction rateof the metal with the environment.

~e! Electrical. Work resulting from the flow of electrons from a negative to a positive source. Example: A power b sander imports a flow ofelectrical energy~electricity, for convenience! from a wall outlet and transforms it into a rotation.

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i. Electromotive force. Potential difference across th positive and negative sources. Example: Househ electrical receptacles provide a flow ofelectromotive force of approximately 110 V.

ii. Current . The flow or rate of flow of electric charge in a conductor or medium between two points having difference in potential. Example: Circuit breakers tr when thecurrent exceeds a specified limit.

~f! Electromagnetic. Energy that is propagated through fre space or through a material medium in the form of elect magnetic waves~Britannica Online, 1997!. It has both wave and particle-like properties. Example: Solar pan convert the flowelectromagnetic energyinto electricity. i. Optical. Work associated with the nature and prope

ties of light and vision. Also, a special case of so energy ~see solar!. Example: A car visor refines the flow of optical energythat its passengers receive. ~a! Intensity. The amount of optical energy per un

area. Example: Tinted windows reduce theopti- cal intensityof the entering light.

~b! Velocity. The speed of light in its conducting me dium. Example: NASA developed and tested trajectory control sensor~TCS! for the space shuttle to calculate the distance between the p load bay and a satellite. It relied on the constan of the optical velocityflow to calculate distance from time of flight measurements of a reflecte laser.

ii Solar. Work produced by or coming from the sun. E ample: Solar panels collect the flow ofsolar energyand transform it into electricity. ~a! Intensity. The amount of solar energy per un

area. Example: A cloudy day reduces thesolar intensity available to solar panels for conversio to electricity.

~b! Velocity. The speed of light in free space. Ex ample: Unlike most energy flows,solar velocity is a well known constant.

~g! Hydraulic . Work that results from the movement and for of a liquid, including hydrostatic forces. Example: Hydr electric dams generate electricity by harnessing thehydrau- lic energyin the water that passes through the turbines. i. Pressure. The pressure field exerted by a compress

liquid. Example: A hydraulic jack uses the flowhy- draulic pressureto lift heavy objects.

ii. Volumetric flow . The movement of fluid molecules Example: A water meter measures thevolumetric flow of water without a significant pressure drop in the lin

~h! Magnetic. Work resulting from materials that have th property of attracting other like materials, whether th quality is naturally occurring or electrically induced. Ex ample: Themagnetic energyof a magnetic lock is the flow that keeps it secured to the iron based structure. i. Magnetomotive force. The driving force which sets

up the magnetic flux inside of a core. Magnetomoti force is directly proportional to the current in the co surrounding the core. Example: In a magnetic do lock, a change inmagnetomotive force~brought about by a change in electrical current! allows the lock to disengage and the door to open.

ii. Magnetic flux rate. Flux is the magnetic displacemen variable in a core induced by the flow of curre through a coil. The magnetic flow variable is the tim rate of change of the flux. The voltage across a m netic coil is directly proportional to the time rate o

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change of magnetic flux. Example: A magnetic relay a transducer that senses thetime rate of change of magnetic fluxwhen the relay arm moves.

~i! Mechanical. Energy associated with the moving parts of machine or the strain energy associated with a loading s of an object. Example: An elevator converts electrical hydraulic energy intomechanical energy. i. Rotational energy. Energy that results from a rotatio

or a virtual rotation. Example: Customers are primar concerned with the flow ofrotational energyfrom a power screwdriver. ~a! Torque. Pertaining to the moment that produce

or tends to produce rotation. Example: In a pow screwdriver, electricity is converted intorota- tional energy. The more specific flow istorque, based on the primary customer need to ins screws easily, not quickly.

~b! Angular velocity. Pertaining to the orientation o the magnitude of the time rate of change of ang lar position about a specified axis. Example: centrifuge is used to separate out liquids of d ferent densities from a mixture. The primary flo it produces is that ofangular velocity, since the rate of rotation about an axis is the main conce

ii. Translational energy. Energy flow generated or re quired by a translation or a virtual translation. E ample: A child’s toy, such as a projectile launche transmitstranslational energyto the projectile to pro- pel it away. ~a! Force. The action that produces or attempts

produce a translation. Example: In a tensile te ing machine, the primary flow of interest is that o a force which produces a stress in the test spe men.

~b! Linear velocity. Motion that can be described b three component directions. Example: An elev tor car uses the flow oflinear velocity to move between floors.

iii. Vibrational energy. Oscillating translational or rota- tional energy that is characterized by an amplitude a frequency. In the rotational case, motion does n complete a 360° cycle~if . 360°, then userotational energy category!. Example: In many block sanders the sanding surface receives a flow ofvibration to remove the wood surface.Vibration is produced by an offcenter mass on the motor shaft.

~a! Amplitude . Energy flow is characterized by th magnitude of the generalized force or displac ment. Example: In fatigue testing, thevibrational amplitudeof the tensile stress is more importa than the speed of each loading cycle.

~b! Frequency. Energy flow is characterized by th number of oscillatory cycles per unit time. Ex ample: Exposure to certainvibrational frequen- cies can induce sickness in humans.

~j! Pneumatic. Work resulting from a compressed gas flow pressure source. Example: A B-B gun relies on the fl of pneumatic energy~from compressed air! to propel the projectile ~B-B!. i. Pressure. The pressure field exerted by a compress

gas. Example: Certain cylinders rely on the flow pneumatic pressureto move a piston or support a force.

ii. Mass flow. The kinetic energy of molecules in a ga flow. Example: Themass flowof air is the flow that transmits the thermal energy of a hair dryer to dam hair.

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~k! Radioactive. Work resulting from or produced by particle or rays, such as alpha, beta and gamma rays, by the s taneous disintegration of atomic nuclei. Example: Nucle reactors produce a flow ofradioactive energywhich heats water into steam and then drives electricity generating bines. i. Intensity. The amount of radioactive particles per un

area. Example: Concrete is an effective radioact shielding material, reducing theradioactive intensityin proportion to its thickness.

ii. Decay rate. The rate of emission of radioactive pa ticles from a substance. Example: Thedecay rateof carbon provides a method to date pre-historic objec

~l! Thermal. A form of energy that is transferred betwee bodies as a result of their temperature difference. Exam A coffee maker converts the flow of electricity into the flo of thermal energywhich it transmits to the water. Note: A pseudo bond graph approach is used here. T true effort and flow variables are temperature and the tim rate of change of entropy. However, a more practic pseudo-flow of heat rate is chosen here. i. Temperature. The degree of heat of a body. Exampl

A coffee maker brings thetemperatureof the water to boiling in order to siphon the water from the holdin tank to the filter basket.

ii. Heat rate. ~Note: this is a pseudo-flow.! The time rate of change of heat energy of a body. Example: Fins a motor casing increase the flowheat rate from the motor by conduction~through the fin!, convection~to the air! and radiation~to the environment!.

3 Signal

~a! Status. A condition of some system, as in informatio about the state of the system. Example: Automobiles of measure the engine water temperature and send astatus signal to the driver via a temperature gage. i. Auditory . A condition of some system as displaye

by a sound. Example: Pilots receive anauditory sig- nal, often the words ‘‘pull up,’’ when their aircraft reaches a dangerously low altitude.

ii. Olfactory . A condition of some system as related b the sense of smell or particulate count. Example: C bon monoxide detectors receive anolfactory signal from the environment and monitor it for high levels o CO.

iii. Tactile. A condition of some system as perceived touch or direct contact. Example: A pager delivers tactile signalto its user through vibration.

iv. Taste. A condition of some dissolved substance perceived by the sense of taste. Example: In an e tric wok, thetaste signalfrom the human chef is use to determine when to turn off the wok.

v. Visual. A condition of some system as displayed b some image. Example: A power screwdriver provid a visual signalof its direction through the display o arrows on the switch.

~b! Control . A command sent to an instrument or apparatus regulate a mechanism. Example: An airplane pilot send control signal to the elevators through movement of th yoke. The yoke movement is transformed into an electri signal, sent through wiring to the elevator, and then tra formed back into a physical elevator deflection.

Appendix B: Function Definitions The function classes are introduced in Section 4. Definitions

each class and basic function are presented below. Example given for the basic functions. Used with the flow definitions

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Appendix A, the function definitions complete the functional b sis, improving repeatability of function structure development a providing a standard level of detail at which the decomposit process stops.

1 Branch. To cause a material or energy to no longer be join or mixed.

~a! Separate. To isolate a material or energy into distinct com ponents. The separated components are distinct from flow before separation, as well as each other. Example glass prismseparateslight into different wavelength com- ponents to produce a rainbow. i. Remove. To take away a part of amaterial from its

prefixed place. Example: A sanderremoves small pieces of the wood surface to smooth the wood.

~b! Refine. To reduce a material or energy such that only t desired elements remain. Example: In a coffee maker, filter refinesthe coffee grounds and allows the new liqu ~coffee! to pass through.

~c! Distribute . To cause a material or energy to break up. T individual bits are similar to each other and the undistr uted flow. Example: An atomizerdistributes ~or sprays! hair-styling liquids over the head to hold the hair in th desired style.

2 Channel. To cause a material or energy to move from o location to another location.

~a! Import . To bring in an energy or material from outside th system boundary. Example: A physical opening at the of a blender pitcherimports a solid ~food! into the system. Also, a handle on the blender pitcherimports a human hand. The blender systemimportselectricity via an electric plug.

~b! Export . To send an energy or material outside the syst boundary. Example: Pouring blended food out of a stand blender pitcherexportsliquid from the system. The open ing at the top of the blender is a solution to theexport sub-function.

~c! Transfer. To shift, or convey, a flow from one place t another. i. Transport . To move amaterial from one place to an-

other. Example: A coffee makertransportsliquid ~wa- ter! from its reservoir through its heating chamber a then to the filter basket.

ii. Transmit . To move anenergyfrom one place to an- other. Example: In a hand held power sander, housing of the sandertransmits human force to the object being sanded.

~d! Guide. To direct the course of an energy or material alo a specific path. Example: A domestic HVAC systemguides gas~air! around the house to the correct locations via a of ducts. i. Translate. To fix the movement of amaterial ~by a

device! into one linear direction. Example: In an as sembly line, a conveyor belttranslatespartially com- pleted products from one assembly station to anoth

ii. Rotate. To fix the movement of amaterial ~by a de- vice! around one axis. Example: A computer dis drive rotatesthe magnetic disks around an axis so th data can be read by the head.

iii. Allow degree of freedom „DOF…. To control the movement of amaterial ~by a force external to the device! into one or more directions. Example: To pro vide easy trunk access and close appropriately, tru lids need to move along a specific degree of freedo A four bar linkageallows a rotationalDOF for the trunk lid.

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3 Connect. To bring two or more energies or materials togeth

~a! Couple. To join or bring together energies or materia such that the members are still distinguishable from e other. Example: A standard pencilcouplesan eraser and a writing shaft. The coupling is performed using a me sleeve that is crimped to the eraser and the shaft.

~b! Mix . To combine two materials into a single, uniform h mogeneous mass. Example: A shakermixes a paint base and its dyes to form a homogeneous liquid.

4 Control Magnitude . To alter or govern the size or amplitud of material or energy.

~a! Actuate. To commence the flow of energy or material response to an imported control signal. Example: A circ switch actuatesthe flow of electrical energy and turns on light bulb.

~b! Regulate. To adjust the flow of energy or material in re sponse to a control signal, such as a characteristic of a fl Example: Turning the valvesregulatesthe flow rate of the liquid flowing from a faucet.

~c! Change. To adjust the flow of energy or material in a pr determined and fixed manner. Example: In a hand h drill, a variable resistorchangesthe electrical energy flow to the motor thus changing the speed the drill turns. i. Form. To mold or shape a material. Example: In th

auto industry, large pressesform sheet metal into con- toured surfaces that become fenders, hoods and tru

ii. Condition. To render an energy appropriate for th desired use. Example: To prevent damage to electr equipment, a surge protectorconditionselectrical en- ergy by excluding spikes and noise~usually through capacitors! from the energy path.

5 Convert. To change from one form of energy or material another. For completeness, any type of flow conversion is va In practice, conversions such asconvert electricity to torquewill be more common thanconvert solid to optical energy. Example: An electrical motorconvertselectricity to rotational energy. 6 Provide. To accumulate or provide material or energy.

~a! Store. To accumulate material or energy. Example: A D electrical batterystoresthe energy in a flashlight.

~b! Supply. To provide material or energy from storage. E ample: In a flashlight, the batterysuppliesenergy to the bulb.

~c! Extract . To draw, or forcibly pull out, a material or energy Example: Metal wire isextractedfrom the manufacturing process of extrusion.

7 Signal. To provide information.

~a! Sense. To perceive, or become aware, of a signal. Examp An audio cassette machinesensesif the end of the tape has been reached.

~b! Indicate. To make something known to the user. Examp A small window in the water container of a coffee mak indicatesthe level of water in the machine.

~c! Display. To show a visual effect. Example: The face a needle of an air pressure gagedisplay the status of the pressure vessel.

~d! Measure. To determine the magnitude of a material or e ergy flow. Example: An analog thermostatmeasurestem- perature through a bimetallic strip.

8 Support. To firmly fix a material into a defined location, o secure an energy into a specific course.

~a! Stop. To cease, or prevent, the transfer of a material energy. Example: A reflective coating on a windowstops the transmission of UV radiation through a window.

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~b! Stabilize. To prevent a material or energy from changin course or location. Example: On a typical canister vacuu the center of gravity is placed at a low elevation tostabilize the vacuum when it is pulled by the hose.

~c! Secure. To firmly fix a material or energy path. Example On a bicycling glove, a velcro strapsecuresthe human hand in the correct place.

~d! Position. To place a material or energy into a specific l cation or orientation. Example: The coin slot on a so machinepositionsthe coin to begin the coin evaluation an transportation procedure.

References @1# Stone, R., Wood, K., and Crawford, R., 1998, ‘‘A Heuristic Method to Ident

Modules from a Functional Description of a Product,’’Proceedings of DETC98, DETC98/DTM-5642, Atlanta, GA.

@2# Stone, R., Wood, K., and Crawford, R., 2000, ‘‘A Heuristic Method for Ide tifying Modules for Product Architectures,’’ Des. Stud.,21, No. 1, pp. 5–31.

@3# Ullman, D., 1997,The Mechanical Design Process, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.

@4# Pahl, G., and Beitz, W., 1988,Engineering Design: A Systematic Approac, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

@5# Suh, N., 1990,The Principles of Design, Oxford University Press. @6# Hubka, V., and Ernst Eder, W., 1984,Theory of Technical Systems, Springer-

Verlag, Berlin. @7# Ulrich, K., and Eppinger, S., 1995,Product Design and Development,

McGraw-Hill, New York. @8# Schmidt, L., and Cagan, J., 1995, ‘‘Recursive Annealing: A Computatio

Model for Machine Design,’’ Res. Eng. Des.,7, pp. 102–125. @9# Pimmler, T., and Eppinger, S., 1994, ‘‘Integration Analysis of Product Deco

positions,’’ Proceedings of the ASME Design Theory and Methodology C ference, DE-Vol. 68.

@10# Shimomura, Y., Tanigawa, S., Takeda, H., Umeda, Y., and Tomiyama, 1996, ‘‘Functional Evaluation Based on Function Content,’’Proceedings of the 1996 ASME Design Theory and Methodology Conference, 96-DETC/ DTM-1532, Irvine, CA.

@11# Cutherell, D., 1996, ‘‘Chapter 16: Product Architecture,’’The PDMA Hand- book of New Product Development, Rosenau, M., Jr., et al., ed., Wiley, New York.

@12# Otto, K., and Wood, K. L., 1998, ‘‘Reverse Engineering and Redesign Me odology,’’ Res. Eng. Des.,10, No. 4, pp. 226–243.

@13# Otto, K., and Wood, K., 1997, ‘‘Conceptual and Configuration Design Products and Assemblies,’’ASM Handbook, Materials Selection and Desig, 20, ASM International.

@14# Akiyama, K., Function Analysis: Systematic Improvement of Quality Perfo mance, Productivity Press, 1991.

@15# Miles, L., 1972, Techniques of Value Analysis Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.

@16# VAI ~Value Analysis Incorporated!, Value Analysis, Value Engineering, an Value Management, Clifton Park, New York, 1993.

@17# Collins, J., Hagan, B., and Bratt, H., 1976, ‘‘The Failure-Experien Matrix—a Useful Design Tool,’’ ASME J. Eng. Ind.,98, pp. 1074–1079.

@18# Hundal, M., 1990, ‘‘A Systematic Method for Developing Function Structure Solutions and Concept Variants,’’ Mech. Mach. Theory,25, No. 3, pp. 243– 256.

@19# Koch, P., Peplinski, J., Allen, J., and Mistree, F., 1994, ‘‘A Method for Desi Using Available Assets: Identifying a Feasible System Configuration,’’ Beh Sci., 30, pp. 229–250.

@20# Malmqvist, J., Axelsson, R., and Johansson, M., 1996, ‘‘A Comparat Analysis of the Theory of Inventive Problem Solving and the Systematic A proach of Pahl and Beitz,’’Proceedings of the 1996 ASME Design Enginee ing Technical Conferences, 96-DETC/DTM-1529, Irvine, CA.

@21# Altshuller, G., 1984,Creativity as an Exact Science, Gordon and Branch Pub- lishers.

@22# Kirschman, C., Fadel, G., 1998, ‘‘Classifying Functions for Mechanical D sign,’’ ASME J. Mech. Des.,120, No. 3, pp. 475–482.

@23# Little, A., Wood, K., and McAdams, D., 1997, ‘‘Functional Analysis: A Fun damental Empirical Study for Reverse Engineering, Benchmarking and R sign,’’ Proceedings of the 1997 Design Engineering Technical Conferen, 97-DETC/DTM-3879, Sacramento, CA.

@24# Little, A., 1997, ‘‘A Reverse Engineering Toolbox for Functional Produ Measurement,’’ Master thesis, The University of Texas at Austin.

@25# Murdock, J., Szykman, S., and Sriram, R., 1997, ‘‘An Information Modeli Framework to Support Design Databases and Repositories,’’Proccedings of DETC’97, DETC97/DFM-4373, Sacramento, CA.

@26# McAdams, D., Stone, R., and Wood, K., 1998, ‘‘Product Similarity Based Customer Needs,’’Proccedings of DETC98, DETC98/DTM-5660, Atlanta, GA.

@27# McAdams, D., Stone, R., and Wood, K., 1999, ‘‘Functional Interdependa and Product Similarity based on Customer Needs,’’ Res. Eng. Des.,11, No. 1, pp. 1–19.

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@28# Stone, R., 1997, ‘‘Towards a Theory of Modular Design,’’ Doctoral thesis, The University of Texas at Austin.

@29# Karnop, D., Margolis, D., and Rosenberg, R., 1990,System Dynamics: A Uni- fied Approach, Wiley, New York.

@30# Karnop, D., 1990, ‘‘Bond Graph Models for Electrochemical Energy Stora Electrical, Chemical and Thermal Effects,’’ J. Franklin Inst.,327, No. 6, pp. 982–992.

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Bond Graph Theory and Application,’’ J. Franklin Inst.,328, No. 5, pp. 1067– 1109.

@32# Tipler, P., 1978,Modern Physics, Worth Publishers. @33# U.S. Department of Transportation, 1996, ‘‘Human Factors Design Guid

Federal Aviation Administration, DOT/FAA/CT-96/1, Atlantic City, NJ. @34# Urban, G., and Hauser, J., 1993,Design and Marketing of New Products, 2nd

ed., Prentice Hall, New York.

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Discuss the steps to manage change.

December 16, 2022/in Uncategorized /by SK

This assignment consists of reading the following scenario and composing a paper regarding what managers must do to lead change and achieve their goals through planning and prioritization.

This Assignment will be used to assess the following Course Outcomes:

AB140-3: Discuss the steps to manage change.

PC-2.1: Achieve goals through planning and prioritization.

You are owner and executive level manager of a food and beverage shop which has eight locations. Your strategic goal is to expand this business over the next 5 years. Your business has a great problem: An increase in the number of customers! However, employees have been consistently reporting that they are overwhelmed by the volume of customers. Additionally, your frontline and middle level managers have noticed that the number of reported errors in customer orders has increased. You have decided to adopt an electronic customer ordering system that will allow customers to input their own orders at touch-screen computer kiosks located within each store. Employees will focus on preparing each order as it appears on a screen in the food preparation area. This will address the issue of employees being overwhelmed by the increased pace of the workplace while also improving accuracy and speed in fulfilling customers’ orders.

You have decided to first communicate your decision to the eight location managers who report to you in an email communication. You are aware of how important it is to exhibit professionalism and business etiquette in constructing this email message to the managers. It is important for you to gain the support of the managers since they will have key roles in leading this change at the shop level. The main focus of this message is to describe the intended implementation and achieve your goals with planning and prioritization, following each of the eight steps in the process for leading change.

Following the eight steps to leading change (which start with establishing a sense of urgency and end with anchoring new approaches in the culture, as well as the other required reading from the text, compose an email communication (type it in a Word document). This email will be from you to the location managers describing what they must be aware of and do to manage this change in technology to automated customer service. After you have completed the email message to the location managers (in a Word document), address the following questions in the remainder of your paper:

Is email an effective channel to send this message? Why or why not? What are potential communication pitfalls in this scenario, and how can they be avoided?

In summary: In a Word document, compose an email message from you to the location managers (shop managers) explaining the steps necessary to manage this new technology change, and addressing the questions above concerning this communication channel and its potential pitfalls. Note: The main portion of your paper consists of the message about the change, written from the perspective of you to the managers and following the protocol laid out in the eight steps to leading change from your text. After you have composed the message to the managers, address the other parts of the assignment regarding the effectiveness of email as a channel to communicate this message and potential communication pitfalls in this scenario.

Minimum Submission Requirements:

Your paper should be at least 2 full double-spaced pages in length, using size 12-point font in Word.
Be sure your paper is well written in paragraph form, with correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Be sure to name your file according to the following file-naming convention: username_homework_unit#.doc.
You may use external sources in addition to the required readings. Cite any external sources used.
Your paper must be written in Standard English and demonstrate exceptional content, organization, style, grammar, and mechanics.
Your paper should provide a clearly established and sustained viewpoint and purpose.
Your writing should be well ordered, logical, and unified, as well as original and insightful.