Third Edition

Women’s Lives A PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLORATION

Claire A. Etaugh Bradley University

Judith S. Bridges University of Connecticut at Hartford, Emerita

 

2

 

 

First published 2013, 2010, 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Published 2016 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY, 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2006 Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notices: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text on page 490.

ISBN: 9780205255634 (pbk)

Cover Designer: Suzanne Behnke

Library of Congre s s Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Etaugh, Claire.  Women’s lives : a psychological exploration / Claire A. Etaugh, Judith S. Bridges. — 3rd ed.   p. cm.  Includes bibliographical references and index.  ISBN-13: 978-0-205-25563-4  ISBN-10: 0-205-25563-9  1. Women—Psychology. 2. Women—North America—Social conditions. I. Bridges, Judith S. II. Title.  HQ1206.E883 2012  155.3′33—dc23

2011051405

3

 

 

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

CONTENTS

Preface

Introduction to the Psychology of Women Definitions: Sex and Gender Women and Men: Similar or Different?

Similarities Approach Differences Approach

Feminism History of Women in Psychology

■ GET INVOLVED 1.1: How Do Pe ople Vie w Fe minis m? Women and the American Psychological Association Women’s Contributions

History of the Psychology of Women The Early Years The Recent Years

Studying the Psychology of Women Bias in Psychological Research ■ GET INVOLVED 1.2: Are Sample s in Ps ychological Re s e arch Bias e d? Feminist Research Methods ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 1.1: Doing Cros s -Cultural Re s e arch on Ge nde r Drawing Conclusions From Multiple Studies ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 1.1: Principle s of Fe minis t Re s e arch

Themes in the Text Theme 1: Intersectionality: The Diversity of Women’s Identities and

Experiences Theme 2: Gender Differences in Power ■ WHAT YOU CAN DO 1.1: He lp Empowe r Girls and Wome n Theme 3: Social Construction of Gender

Summary Key Terms What Do You Think? If You Want to Learn More Websites

Cultural Representation of Gender Stereotypes of Females and Males

The Content of Gender Stereotypes ■ GET INVOLVED 2.1: How Do You Vie w Typical Fe male s and Male s ? The Perceiver’s Ethnicity and Gender Stereotypes The Target’s Characteristics and Gender Stereotypes

4

 

 

Chapter 3

Stereotypes of Girls and Boys Bases for Gender Stereotypes Stereotypes Based on Identity Labels

Sexism: Experiences And Attitudes Experiences With Sexism Changes in Sexist Attitudes Over Time Modern Sexism Ambivalent Sexism ■ GET INVOLVED 2.2: Who Holds Mode rn Se xis t Be lie fs ? ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 2.1: Be ne vole nt Se xis m Is a Global Phe nome non

Representation of Gender in the Media Pattern 1: Underrepresentation of Females ■ GET INVOLVED 2.3: How Are Fe male s and Male s Portraye d on Prime – Time Te le vis ion? Pattern 2: Underrepresentation of Specific Groups of Females ■ GET INVOLVED 2.4: Me dia Adve rtis e me nts and the Double Standard of

Aging Pattern 3: Portrayal of Gender-Based Social Roles Pattern 4: Depiction of Female Communion and Male Agency Pattern 5: Emphasis on Female Attractiveness and Sexuality Impact of Gender-Role Media Images ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 2.1: Are Babie s Portraye d Ste re otypically in Birth Congratulations Cards ? ■ WHAT YOU CAN DO 2.1: Incre as e Girls ’ and Wome n’s Aware ne s s of the Effe cts of Me dia ■ GET INVOLVED 2.5: Are Both Wome n and Me n Pe rs ons ?

Representation of Gender in the English Language Language Practices Based on the Assumption That Male Is Normative Negative Terms for Females Significance of the Differential Treatment of Females and Males in

Language Summary Key Terms What Do You Think? If You Want to Learn More Websites

Gender Self-Concept and Gender Attitudes Gender Self-Concept Prenatal Development

Stages of Prenatal Sex Differentiation Intersexuality ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 3.1: Multiple Ge nde rs

Theories of Gender Typing Psychoanalytic Theory

5

 

 

Chapter 4

Social Learning Theory Cognitive Developmental Theory Gender Schema Theory ■ WHAT YOU CAN DO 3.1: Ways to Minimize Ge nde r Sche mas in Childre n

Gender-Related Traits Changes in Gender-Related Traits Over Time ■ GET INVOLVED 3.1: What Are Your Ge nde r-Re late d Traits ? Gender-Related Traits and Psychological Adjustment Evaluation of the Concept of Androgyny ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 3.1: A Re al-Life Approach to Androgyny

Gender Attitudes ■ GET INVOLVED 3.2: What Are Your Ge nde r Attitude s ? ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 3.2: Ge nde r Attitude s in Global Conte xt

Individual differences in Gender-related attitudes ■ GET INVOLVED 3.3: Ethnic Variations in Ge nde r Attitude s

Perceived Value of Female Versus Male Gender-Related Attributes ■ GET INVOLVED 3.4: Would You Rathe r Be a Fe male or a Male ?

Summary Key Terms What Do You Think? If You Want to Learn More Websites

Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence Children’s Knowledge and Beliefs About Gender

Distinguishing Between Females and Males Gender Identity and Self-Perceptions Gender Stereotypes ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 4.1: Ge nde r Ste re otype s About Occupations

Gender-Related Activities And Interests Physical Performance and Sports ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 4.1: How Do Childre n De ve lop Ge nde r Ste re otype s in Othe r Culture s ? Toys and Play Gender Segregation ■ GET INVOLVED 4.1: Play Patte rns of Girls and Boys

Influences On Gender Development Parents ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 4.2: Le arning Ge nde r-Re late d Role s at Home and at Play Siblings School Peers

6

 

 

Chapter 5

Media Puberty

■ GET INVOLVED 4.2: Influe nce s on Ge nde r De ve lopme nt Events of Puberty Menarche Gender Differences in Puberty Early and Late Maturation in Girls

Psychosocial Development in Adolescence Identity Formation Self-Esteem Gender Intensification ■ WHAT YOU CAN DO 4.1: Empowe ring Girls to Le ad Social Change Body Image ■ GET INVOLVED 4.3: Pe rce ptions of Actual and De s irable Phys ique

Summary Key Terms What Do You Think? If You Want to Learn More Websites

Gender Comparisons Gender-Related Social Behaviors And Personality Traits

Aggression Prosocial Behavior Influenceability Emotionality Moral Reasoning

Communication Style Verbal Communication ■ GET INVOLVED 5.1: “Trouble s Talk”: Effe cts of Ge nde r on Communication Style s Nonverbal Communication

Gender Comparison of Cognitive Abilities Verbal Ability Visual-Spatial Ability Mathematics Ability ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 5.1: Ge nde r Diffe re nce s in Mathe matics Achie ve me nt Around the World ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 5.1: Factors Linke d to Wome n’s Pe rs pe ctive s on Math ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 5.2: Ge nde r, Compute rs , and Vide o Game s ■ WHAT YOU CAN DO 5.1: Encouraging Girls in Math and Scie nce

Summary Key Terms

7

 

 

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

What Do You Think? If You Want to Learn More Websites

Sexuality Sexuality

Sexual anatomy and Sexual Response Sexual Attitudes Sexual Behaviors Sexual Problems

Lesbians, Gay Men, Bisexuals, And Transgender Individuals ■ GET INVOLVED 6.1: Attitude s Toward Le s bians Bisexuals Attitudes Toward Sexual Minorities ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 6.1: Se xual Minoritie s Around the World Explanations of Sexual Orientation ■ WHAT YOU CAN DO 6.1: Supporting Rights of Se xual Minoritie s

Sexual Activity During Adolescence Frequency of Sexual Activity ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 6.1: Hook-Ups and Frie nds With Be ne fits Factors Associated with Sexual Activity The Double Standard Sexual Desire

Sexual Activity in Midlife Physical Changes Patterns of Sexual Activity

Sexual Activity in Later Life Benefits of Sexual Activity in Later Life ■ GET INVOLVED 6.2: Attitude s Toward Se xuality in Late r Life Sexual Behavior of Older People Factors Affecting Sexual Behavior Enhancing Sexuality in Later Life

Summary Key Terms What Do You Think? If You Want to Learn More Websites

Reproductive System and Childbearing Menstruation

The Menstrual Cycle Menstrual Pain Attitudes Toward Menstruation Menstrual Joy

8

 

 

Chapter 8

Premenstrual Syndrome ■ GET INVOLVED 7.1: Me ns trual Symptoms

Contraception Contraception in Adolescence Methods of Contraception

Abortion Incidence Methods Consequences of Abortion ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 7.1: Wome n’s Re productive Live s Around the World

Pregnancy Pregnancy: Physical and Psychological Changes ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 7.2: Fe male Ge nital Cutting ■ WHAT YOU CAN DO 7.1: He lp Incre as e Re productive Choice s of Girls and Wome n ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 7.3: Pre gnancy-Re late d De aths Around the World Miscarriage Teenage Pregnancy ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 7.4: Why Is the Te e n Pre gnancy Rate So High in the Unite d State s ?

Childbirth Stages of Childbirth Methods of Childbirth Childbearing After 35 Childbearing in the Later Years ■ GET INVOLVED 7.2: Pre gnancy and Childbirth Expe rie nce s Postpartum Distress Infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technology

Reproductive Functioning in Midlife and Beyond Menopause ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 7.1: Childfre e by Choice ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 7.5: Me nopaus e : Symbol of De cline or of Highe r Status ? Hormone Replacement Therapy

Summary Key Terms What Do You Think? If You Want to Learn More Websites

Relationships Friendships

Friendship in Adolescence Friendship in Adulthood

9

 

 

Friendship in Later Life Romantic Relationships

Desirable Qualities in a Partner Perception of Sexual Interest ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 8.1: What Do Pe ople in Othe r Culture s Look for in a Mate ? Dating ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 8.1: Dating Is s ue s for Wome n With Phys ical Dis abilitie s ■ GET INVOLVED 8.1: Dating Scripts of Wome n and Me n

Committed Relationship Marriage Cohabitation Lesbian Relationships

Single Women Divorced Women Never-Married Women Widowed Women Women Who Have Lost a Same-Sex Partner

Motherhood Stereotypes of Mothers Single Mothers ■ WHAT YOU CAN DO 8.1: He lp Addre s s Is s ue s of Pare nting and Work- Family Balancing Lesbian Mothers Mothers With Disabilities The “Empty Nest” Period ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 8.2: Adult Childre n of Le s bian Mothe rs