Chapter10 [] IntercutturatConfhct 337

1. Define intelcultural conflict .

2. Define facework and identify three plimary facewo& strategies

3. List and define the five primaly and three secondary styles of conflict communication

4. Identify and discuss the conflict styles preferred by individuahstic and collectivistic cultures

5. Idenufy and discuss the conflict styles preferred by high- versus low-context cultures

6. Explain and apply the components of the contingency model of cross-cultural conflict

Imagine yourself m the following situation:

INTERCULTURAL CONFLICT

Mahatma Gandhi

Honest disagreement Js often a good sign of progress.

Aklra Abe is an internauonal exchange student from Japan who lives down the hall from you m your dorm. You have interacted with Aklra only occasionally and do not know him very well. This morning, Akira approached you to compiam that you frequently play your music so loudly that he Is unable to study or sleep. Aklra then asked if you would please stop playing your music so loudly.

What would you do m this situation? How would you resolve this conflict? Would you comply with Akira’s request? Would you argue with Akira?

Conflict, such as the one depicted above, is an inevitable part of living in a society with others. All types of human relationships–from strangers to acquaintances to intimates– experience conflict. Communication plays a paradoxical role in most conflicts because communicauon is required both to instigate conflict and to resolve it. Unfortunately, conflict is the source of much relational stress and dissolution; fortunately, the successful resolution of conflict is one of the strongest and most consistent predictors of relational sausfaction. Hence, an understanding of conflict and how to resolve it is an essential part of becoming a competent communicator, especially in your relationships with persons from other cultures.

DEFINITION OF INTERCULTURAL CONFLICT In the past 30 years, a growing body of theory and iesearch has emerged m the intercultural communication literature regarding the nature of intercultural conflict Much of this research Is based on the work of Stella Tmg-Toomey and John Oetzel) They define intercultural conflict as

the implicit ot exphcit emotional struggle between persons of different cultural commumties over perceived ol actual incompatibility of cultural ideologies and values, situational norms, goals, face-orientations, scarce resources, styles/processes,

)ntercu[tura[

conftlct The fmpLiclt

or explicit emotional

struggle between persons of different cultures over

perceived or actual

incompatibility of cultural Ideologies and values, sltuatmnal.

norms, goals, face onentatmns, scarce

resources, styles/

processes, and/or outcomes In a face-

to-face context

338 Chapter 10 m IntercuLtural.ConflictIntercultural. Communication

and/or outcomes in a face-to-face (oi mediated) context within a soclohistorical embedded system.2

Well-known lntercultmal communication scholai Young Yun Kun has developed a model of lntmcuhural conflict. Klm argues that lntelcultulal conflmt occuis at thiee interdependent and interrelated levels, mctudmg a mlclo oi individual level, an lnteime&aiy level; and a macro or societal level (see Figure 10.1).4

The miclo, ot zndividual, level of mteicultural conflmt refels to the unique attitudes, dispositions, and beliefs that each individual bnngs to the conflmt. According to Kim’s model, cognitive simpllcity/rlgl&ty refels to the degiee of mflexlbihty in the way individuals think about people fiom dlffelent cultules. Rigid, simphstic thinking includes gloss categmizanon and stereotyping (e.g., all Ameiicans ale rude, all Japanese are qmet). In-group bins lefers to the degree to which the individual is ethnocenuic

Recall from Chapter 1 that ethnocenmsm is defined as viewing one’s own group as being at the centei of evewthmg and using the standards of one’s own gloup to measure or gauge the woith of all other gioups. Insecuiity/fiustranon lefers to the degree to which the mdwidual has a high level of uncertainty about, and feat of, out-group members (e.g., they will steal our jobs) Divergent behavmr lefeis to the behavloial pattems of the individual that clearly dljÿerentlate and distance him oi her from out-group membeis For example, obviously &ffeient speech patterns or accents may ostensibly sepaiate groups from one anothei Duimg conflmt, people will often exaggerate their mannmisms and speech to accentuate then differences compared with out-gioups Because you ate upset about

Kim’s Model of IntercuLturaL ConfLict

Macro Level

° History of subjugation , Ideological or structural mequahties = Minority group strength

Intermediary Level

* Segregation/contact , Intergroup salience , Status discrepancy

Micro Level

° Cognitive simphclty/rlgtdlty • In-group bias

= Insecunty/frustratton • Dwergent behaviors

SOURCE Based on Kim, Y Y [1989] Interethnm Confl.Jct An InterdlscJphnary Overwew In J B Gÿttier {Ed 1, Annual Review of Conflict Knowledge and Conflict Resolution {Vot 1] New York GarLand, KLm, Y Y (19901 Explaining Interethmc Conflict An Interdisciplinary Overwew Paper presented at the annual convention of the Speech Comrnunlcatlon Assoctahon Chicago, IL

Micro Levelÿ

Akira’s complaint, you may intentionally turn up the volume on youi music. Imagine two employees worldng together, each fiom a different cultme, who have gross stereotypes of each other, are both ethnocentric, fear each other, and have highly divergent behavioral patterns Kim’s model predicts that such a situation is likely to engender conflict.5

The mtermedmry level of intercultural conflict refers to the actual location and context of the conflict. Some envuonments (e.g., neighborhoods, school, work) may be more likely than others to facilitate conflmt. Segregation and contact refer to the extent to whmh the individuals’ cultmal groups interact on a daily basis. Perhaps the most basic condition for intercultural conflict is contact between diverse cultures or ethnicitles on a day-to-day basis. Segregated wotkplaces or schools do not allow for much interaction, and components at the individual level (e.g, cognitive rigidity, m-group bias) tend to escalate to intolerable levels that facilitate intercultural conflmt. Intergroup salience refels to the observable physical and social differences between the confllcung mdwiduals. Such cultural markets include distinct physical and behavioral differences, such as race, language, and speech patterns.

As Kim notes, to the extent that the groups are cukurally distinct, the communicative skills of the less powerful cultural group will clash with those of the majority gioup members. The majority group’s symbol system is dominant. Status &screpancy refers to the degree to which conflicting parties differ in status along cukural lines. For example, African Americans often argue that U.S. culture practices an asymmetrical power snucture They may feel that the U S. corporate culture reflects the same asymmetry. On the job, managels and supervisors have more powei than workers. If all the managers in a business are of one race or ethnicity and all the workers are of another, then the status discrepancy is helghtened.6

Recall from Chapter 1 that a fundamental assumption of mteicultulal communication is that it Js a group phenomenon experienced by m&viduals. Likewise, duimg intercultural conflict, one’s group membership (l.e, culture) becomes a factor in how conflmt is perceived, managed, ÿ and resolved Some of these cultmal factms may be unconscious, such as one’s degree ofmdwiduahsm or c ollecnvism. Other factors are probably very conscious. Recall your conflict with Akira. The two of you are flora different cultural communities, have mcompanble goals, and desue d,fferent outcomes. You choose to play your music loudly. Akna piefets that you not play your musm loudly Flora a socmhistorical perspecnve, you may wondei if all Japanese ate quiet and dishke loud music. Perhaps Akira quest,ons If all Americans ale l ude and insensmve to the wishes of otheis. Although the conflict between you and Akna could Just as easily have occuued between two U.S. students oi two Japanese students, the fact that it happened between a U.S student and a Japanese student comphcates the issue.

Ting-Toomey and Oetzel maintain that intercultural conflict involves a ceitam degree of ethnocentiic percepuon and judgment. Recall from Chaptei 1 and Chapter 5 that ethnocenmc pmsons hold attitudes and behaviors about their in-group that ate bmsed m favor of the m-group, often at the expense of out-groups Ethnocentric persons fostei cooperative ldatlons with m-group members while competing with, and peihaps even battling, out-group members 3 Hence, by virtue of our cultural upbringing, we think we ate correct (i.e., loud musm is great vs. loud music is disrespectful). To explain intercultural conflict further, three models will be presented next’ Young Kim’s Model of Intercultuial Conflict, Tmg-Toomey and Oetze!’s Culture-Based Social Ecological Conflict Model, and BenJamin Bloome’s Model of Building a Culture of Peace ÿltÿrough Dialogue.

339

340 IntercuLtural. Comrnunlcatlon Chapter10 m Intercu[turatConfhct 34,,

Photo 10.1 Segregated drinking fountain in use in the American South

• ne macro, or socmtal, level of intercultural conflict includes factors that are probably out of the lnteractants’ control. ÿnese conditions include any histoly of subjugation, ideological/ snuctural inequality, and minority group strength. The history of subjugation of one group by anothel is a key environmental factor in maW intercultural conflicts. For example, African Americans have long been subjugated by Whites in the United States. Historically, Aflican Americans were slaves. Even after emancipation, they were not allowed to vote. As late as the 1960s, restaurants in the South’

A CuRure-Based Social EcoLogicaL ConfLict Modet In a model of conflict that complements the Klm model discussed above, Ting-Toomey and Oetzel have developed what they call a cultme-based social ecological conflict model.8 You will see some similarities between this model and the Kim model. In their model, Tmg-Toomey and Oetzel highlight four main factors that come into play during an intercultmal conflict episode: primary orientation factors, situational appraisals, conflict processes, and conflict competence. During intercultural conflict, these four factors come together interdependently in a complex formula that defines the specific conflict episode

(see Figure 10.2). The piimary orientauon factors are what each individual brings to the conflict. This

would be similar to Klm’s micro level, but with some added variables. Tmg-Toomey and Oetzel suggest that each individual brings macro, exo, meso, and micro layers to the

enforced sepaiate bathrooms, seating aieas, and drinking fountains for Afiican Americans

and Whites (see Photo 10.1). Often, the tensions expiessed today are rooted in the history of one group’s subjugation

of another group. Ideological and structural inequity refers to societal diffelences regarding powel, piestige, and economic reward. Historically, in the United States, Whites have held most of the power positions and gained most of the economm reward. Hence, there is a vast ideological and structural &fference between Whites and othei groups. Minority (i.e., miciocuttural) group strength refers to the amount of power (e.g., legal, pohtical, economic) a particular group possesses. Microculturat groups vary in their ability to tally their members against structural inequahtms. Minority group strength varies as a function of the status of the group’s language within the society, the sheer number of members in the group, and forms of societal support (e.g., governmental services designed specifically for that group). Relative to other microcultural groups, African Americans, for example, ale economically and politically quite powerful. Pohucal scientists argue, for instance, that presidential elections are swung by the African Amelican voting bloc. According to Kim, the greater the ethnic group’s strength, the more likely that an individual in that group will take actmn in lntelcultural conflict situations.7 Taken together, these three levels of conflmt merge during any intercultural conflict. To the extent that these individual, intermediary, and societal factors are present, intercultural

conflict will likely ignite.

Q e ,I e Q e o e e e e

e o o o o

o e

e e e e e

o

o e e

e o o o

e

Q o

Mike Fabmn Is the wce president of Acme Marketing Fwm, a company his father founded o Acme ÿs a direct marketing firm for msurapce agencies Mike ÿs 58 years ol,d and White •

e He was born and rinsed In Kenfl.worth, II,l,mols, a weal,thy Chicago suburb Mÿke has six • directors under him in Acme’s organlzatmnat hierarchy These six directors each man- .ÿ

age and supervise about seven empl,oyees Thus, Mike superwses about 50 employees : Once a year, Mÿke has one-on-one meetings with each employee These meetings are a part of each empl,oyee’s annual, evaluation Today, Mÿke is meeting wÿth Nicote Newton •

o Nÿcol,e Js a new employee and has worked for Acme for just over a year She was hÿred ° soon after graduating from co[I.ege with a bachel,or’s degree In commumcatlon Thÿs wÿl,[ • be her first eval,uatmn meeting She was hwed as a tel.emarketer and hopes to move up o mtheorgamzahonsoon SheisAfricanAmer/canand23yearsol,d Shewasralsedlnthe ° city of Chicago, m a pubbe-houslng dÿstrmt Thew meeting takes pl.ace in Mÿke’s office She and Mÿke have never met

Mike Good morning, Nicol,e Come m and have a seat

Nlcole HI, Mike

Mike Actual,l,y, unhl, I get to know my employees, I prefer to be catl,ed Mr Fabmn

Nÿcole Oh, OK, Mr Fabian [pLacing emphasÿs on “Mr”}

Mike [Noticing her tone of vmce } So where are you from?

Ntcole I grew up on the South Side

Mike [Thinks to hlmsel,f, “She and I have nothing m common”} I’m from Kenilworth

Nlcole

Mike

Ntcole

Mÿke

Nicole

Mike

Yeah, I’ve heard of that

So do you have any education beyond high school,9

Yes As my rÿsum4 indicates, I have a bachelor’s degree That shoul,d be m my fil,e

Oh, yes, here it is It says here you have a degree In commumcabon2 What’s that al,l, about9 Cl,asses In speech, I guess, or radio and tel,evlsmn?

WeLl., no I took classes In orgamzahonat communication, pohhcal, com- mumcatmn, IntercuLtural. commumcahon courses l.lke that We dÿscuss

and explore how humans interact wÿthln a variety of contexts It’s a great majorl

WelJ., there was no such major when I went to school I don’t understand Why not major m business? Anyway I’ve been reading your manager’s monthl,y assessments of your performance I can see you need Improvement {n several.

areas, mcl,udlng customer serwce and attitude

[Continued]

342 IntercuLtural. Commumcatlon Chapter 10 [] IntercutturatConfhct 343

Nicole

Mike

Severat of the factors outhned In the KIm mode[ can be appljed to this brief confbct exchange between Mike and NIco[e In terms of the micro flndwldua[} revel, Mike’s cog- mhve rigidity and slmphclty are reflected m his mftexlbte stance about Nicote’s infor- mahty, which doesn’t seem to be an Issue with her customers since none of them has

comptamed, and his tack of knowtedge about commumcahon degrees Regardmgthe intermediary [eve[, that Mike prefers for Nicote to cal.[ him “Mr Fablon” hlghhghts the status discrepancy between them That Mike meets with his emptoyees onty once a year shows that he has httte contact with {I e, is segregated from} them Moreover, persons m Kenltworth may rarel.y interact with persons m the Inner city Fmal.ty, at a macro {so- oeta[} [eve[, there is a hstory of subjugatton between their groups, and Nlco[e’s group has demonstrabl.e minority group strength

conflict–with macto meaning “larger than,” exo meaning “external or outside,” meso

meaning “middle or intermediate,” and mzcto meaning “locahzed or small.” Similar to Klm’s model, the macro-level primary orientation factors are the larger

sociocuhural factors, histories, worldvlews, beliefs, and values held by each individual. Macro-level variables may be outside the individual’s control but nevertheless affect his or hel approach to conflict Some macro-level variables might include the effects of globahzauon (i.e., the compression of cultural boundaries) on an individual. Exo factols include the formal instituuons present in..anyÿcultq.ÿeLÿnc[udmg religious iÿsÿtÿtutigns, governments, and health care systems, among others that are externaFto the individual but affect his or her approach7 Mes0qevel factors refer to the mole Immediate dimensions

Real.[y9 I thought I was doing fine

Weft, your manager says you are informal, wRh customers 1 think that reaves a bad Impression {Thinks to himself, “1 guess that’s not taught In commumcatlon classes “}

Really9 I think they hke It I think it’s at[ right to be a httl.e retaxed once m a whll.e

Weft., maybe el.sewhere, but not here

Have any of my customers compl.amed9

Not directly, no

So then, what’s the problem9 (Thinks to hersel.f, “What’s his probtem9 He thinks he’s pretty specIat He needs a cl.ass In commumcatlon “}

Look, Nicol.e, I’m not going to argue with you I’m te[hng you to Improve your attitude and stop being so reformat with the customers

Whatever you say, Mr Fablon