Alternative Gender Roles Or Rites Of Passage

Choose either Option A or Option B. Formulate an initial post in which you address the points noted in the prompt for your chos

5.3 Supernumerary Genders

Although all cultures recognize at least two genders, there are some cultures in which  supernumerary genders—third or fourth genders—exist.These typically involve a change of the usual association of men’s roles with the male sex  and of women’s roles with the female sex. Two examples of third and fourth genders are the North American Indian Two Spirits (formerly  known as berdache) and the hijra of India.

Save your time - order a paper!

Get your paper written from scratch within the tight deadline. Our service is a reliable solution to all your troubles. Place an order on any task and we will take care of it. You won’t have to worry about the quality and deadlines

Order Paper Now

Indian person with ambiguous male features has a painted face and wears a head-dress.

Eye Ubiquitous/SuperStock

The hijra are considered genderless but perform roles of both genders.

Two Spirits

A number of indigenous North American societies had a social status that has come to be known as a Two Spirits (formerly called a berdache inanthropological literature): a female, male, or intersexed person who had adopted gender roles that mixed the characteristics of the two other genders. Two Spirits were particularly common among men of Plains Indians tribes where warfare was an almost sacred preoccupation and where the male role placed strong emphasis on demonstrations of pride, bravery, and daring. This led some early anthropologists to erroneously interpret the Two Spirits role as a cultural alternative for men who lacked the skill for orinterest in the aggressive pursuits of the  traditional male role (Hoebel, 1949).They assumed that such a man might instead opt for the  life of a Two Spiritsby adopting the dress, work, and mannerisms of a woman. More recent research suggests that this interpretation reflects colonial gender constructs rather than indigenous models and over simplifies a complex and highlyvariable social reality. Most individuals who became Two Spirits did so not to avoid unpleasant aspects of their assigned gender roles but to resolve their gender dysphoria, or profound sense of mismatch between their birth sex and  their gender identity. In his survey of the literature and his own research among the Lakota, Walter Williams (1992, 2010) found that most Native  American societies with Two Spirits provide some sort of social or spiritual acknowledgement or legitimation of their gender role.

Far from being ridiculed or shunned by other members of their community, Two Spirits held a  sacred status in many Native American societies. Often they played important ceremonial roles, and in some cases all shamans were required to be Two Spirits. A female who became a Two Spirits actually moved up the status hierarchy and might achieve wealth and social prominence by doing so, as the change allowed her to participate in what were considered the more advantageous male pursuits such as trade. A Two Spirits “man” might marry and even rear children by having another man impregnate his wife, or a Two Spirits “woman” might hire  another woman as a surrogate mother. For anillustration see Figure 5.1.

The Hijra

Serena Nanda (1985, 1990) has described the hijra, a socially recognized third gender in India.  The hijra, most of whom live in cities in north India, are regarded as neither male nor female, but their roles include elements of both. Like  the Two Spirits of the North American Indians, the hijra gender also includes religious roles. As devotees of the Mother Goddess Bahuchara Mata, the hijra are expected to undergo a surgical removal of their external genitalia and to live an asexual life. Their sexual abstinence is believed to be a source of sacredness that allows the hijra to give blessings of fertility, prosperity, and health or to cause infertility through their  curses. The hijra perform as musicians and dancers atchristenings and at weddings. In these  roles, the hijra are spiritually identified with the Hindu god Shiva, who also plays the roles of  singer,dancer, eunuch, and transvestite. However, much like the Native American Two Spirits,  colonial influences have transformed the hijra gender roleand degraded the status of hijras in  modern Indian society. Hijras still perform many important social and religious functions, but  outside of those contexts they face ridicule, discrimination, and sometimes violence. Some remain on  good terms with their families, while others have been ostracized. Most live in communal hijra households headed by senior hijras called gurus.  Earning a living can be extremely difficult for ahijra, leading many to resort to panhandling and prostitution to generate income, much of which they must hand over to their hijra guru to support the household.

 

Figure 5.1: The hijras and their patron goddess Drawing of a Hijra goddess riding on the back of a chicken.

Hijras worship the Hindu goddess Bahuchara Mata. She was from the Charanfamily, w

en option.

 

Option A: Supernumerary Genders

According to the textbook, gender is the social construct that is assigned and learned based on cultural concepts about the nature of sex differences and their place in social life. Pick one of the supernumerary genders discussed in the textbook (e.g., Two Spirits or hijra as discussed in section 5.3), and explain how these genders function within their respective societies.

 

 

Option B: Rites of Passage

A rite of passage is a ritual that helps mark a person’s transition from one status to another. All cultures have rites of passage to mark these important transitions. With that in mind, choose a rite of passage either from the textbook (see section 6.4) or from your own research. What is the function of this rite within the particular society? How do American rites of passage, such as those you have experienced personally, differ from other rites of passage (see section 6.4, Puberty Rituals)?

 

 

 

Your initial post should be at least 250 words in length. Support your claims with examples from the required materials and/or other scholarly sources, and properly cite any sources. Cite your sources in the body of your post and provide a complete reference for each source used at the end of it.

 

 

I have attached the sections of the text book that is needed for this assigenment.Section 5.3 is for option A   Section 6.4 is for option B