Defining Leadership and Decision Making

No Plagiarism

 

Module Readings:

· Introduction Module (Module 1): commentary: section 4: Leadership Theories

· Public-Safety Challenges, Issues and Leadership Module (Module 2): overview, objectives and the following parts of the commentary:

· Section 1: Public-Safety Leadership Roles

· Section 2: Effective Leaders in Public Safety

· Section 3: Current Leadership Practices in Public Safety

 

Module 1: Introduction

 

1. Defining Leadership and Decision Making

Leadership

A leader, according to the Merriam-Webster OnLine dictionary (2008), is “a person who has commanding authority or influence.” The definition of leadership we will be using for purposes of this course is similar: “Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2007, p. 3). Note the key terms:

· “is a process” (transactional event)

· involves influence (one affecting another)

· occurs within a group context (requires more than one person)

· involves goal attainment (achieving an end)

Although society requires all of us to “lead” ourselves in socially appropriate behavior, it is important to note that to truly lead one must have followers. It is also critical to understand that leadership is a process, not an inherent or learned trait or characteristic. The process must involve continuous communication in order for the leader to influence others. The followers can be one person or one or more nations. Lastly, leaders provide direction or a vision to strive for; they move the group to an end.

Decision Making

Leaders are decision makers, but not all decision makers are leaders. The ability to get someone to adhere to or implement a decision is what distinguishes a leader. A frequent criticism of leaders is that they are not decisive; however, choosing not to make a decision is in fact a decision not to act. It may be the wrong decision, but nonetheless it is a decision. What sets good leaders apart is that they make the correct decision at the right time for the right reason.

Leaders’ decisions should be based on sound facts and information, although there are times when a leader’s decision making is intuitive. Good leaders, however, keep such decision making to a minimum. Decision making, whether good or bad, is linked to the use of discretion. Intuitive decision making is the ultimate use of discretion. Leaders rise and fall on their ability to use discretion. “All leadership decision making involves the use of discretion, which is a part of the broad continuum of decision making processes that involve the act of making choices” (Vaughn and Otenyo, 2007, p. 5). Using discretion wisely is a vital part of successful leadership. “Discretion is a determination of a question and a judgment of opinion in a case in which there has been some form of deliberation” (Vaughn and Otenyo, p. 5).

2. Historic View of Leadership in Homeland Security

Homeland security has only recently become an academic discipline. The formal study of homeland security in the United States began in 2002 after the 9/11 terrorist attacks and as a result of the 2002 National Strategy of Homeland Security. This rapid development meant that homeland security leaders and educators relied heavily on their education and experience in the military and in law enforcement, fire service, emergency medical services, public health, transportation, agriculture, and so on.

As a result of this reliance, leadership theories and styles were “migrated” into the discipline. Because homeland security is the responsibility of three levels of government (local, state, and federal), the military, first responders (police, fire, and emergency medical services), private citizens, and private industry (critical infrastructure, maritime, aviation, and other industries), the theories and styles that were migrated are diverse.

It is important to understand that homeland security and its leadership is evolving quickly as both an academic discipline and as a profession, with the history of leadership in the field beginning only in 2002. For those of you who are entering and those who are continuing in the field, these are exciting times.

The following passage explains further the historical relationship between homeland security and leadership.

As an emerging field, homeland security presents unique challenges for leaders: the context in which contemporary homeland security leaders operate is relatively new and it is also rapidly changing and evolving. This requires that leaders be adaptable and flexible, acutely aware of the context in which they operate, and continually reevaluate it so they can make sound decisions.

Effective leaders must establish direction and purpose, communicate that direction and purpose, and maintain the thrust of the group. They need to promote innovation and creativity and serve as a resource for invigorating the organizational culture. Leaders must also be resilient, maintain a multi-directional vision and focus, and develop an understanding of the psychological forces that move people. Only by doing this can they make decisions about what to do and when to do it in a context full of conflicting data and opinions.

Homeland security leaders have a critical role to play in implementing strategy on all levels and promoting interagency collaboration, a critical element in implementing the strategy. They are important drivers in the field. (Bellavita, 2005, p. 6)

3. Leadership Styles

The 10 major styles of leadership are:

1. transactional

2. transformational

3. autocratic

4. bureaucratic

5. charismatic

6. democratic or participative

7. laissez-faire

8. people-oriented or relations-oriented

9. servant

10. task-oriented (Mind Tools, 1998–2008)

All 10 styles are needed in homeland security; however, the greatest need is for transformative leaders. Despite the challenges of transformational leadership, homeland security would benefit from implementing it because it may be best suited for working with the unpredictable and chaotic change of a large but infant organization. In the following subsections, we will summarize the various leadership styles.

Transactional Leadership

“The transactional leader manages resources, tasks, and” group members “to get a job done” while balancing concern for the “task with…concern for people.” Transactional leaders are managers who view their organizations as complicated machines and their employees as a workforce. “Workforces are motivated by stick and carrot. They are whipped into shape or enticed into willing compliance” (Christakis & Bausch, 2006, p. 192). Leadership decision making is based on these precepts.

Transformational Leadership

In transformational leadership, a group has multiple leaders, and all group members have the opportunity to lead should they choose to do so. With this style, leadership develops as an interactive process between leaders and followers. Its “driving force…’is intended real change’ rather than” simply the leader’s vision. “The motivations of leadership are jointly developed ‘mutual purposes’ rather than a leader’s exhortation calling followers to a higher moral ground” (Christakis & Bausch, p. 194).

Transforming leaders have important new systemic responsibilities and combine the role of process “designer with that of administrator. They become promoters of an organizational culture that initiates and sustains the transformational leadership process.” They instigate and maintain a process of group learning and face “formidable challenges in trying to reach the level of consensual decision making” (Christakis & Bausch, p. 193). Transformational leaders break down and dramatically change the traditional “structural barriers between manager” and “employee or political leader” and “citizen” (Christakis & Bausch, p. 192).

Autocratic Leadership

Autocratic leaders have absolute power over their group members (Mind Tools, 1995–2008). Under such leaders, there is no “group” to manage; rather there are simply followers. Follower input is minimal at best, with autocratic leaders making decisions on their own. Although some autocratic leaders verbalize the team concept, they are more likely concerned with unit cohesiveness and possibly maintaining their position within the unit rather than group or team decision-making input.

This style has the advantage of enabling quick decisions. A frequent problem, however, is that communication tends to be one way only. Autocratic leadership is most effective during emergencies, war, or “for some routine and unskilled jobs…where the advantages of control outweigh the disadvantages” (Mind Tools, 1995–2008).

Bureaucratic Leadership

“Bureaucratic leaders work ‘by the book,’ ensuring that policies and procedures are followed” (Mind Tools, 1995–2008). They are rule followers and promoters. Some group input can be allowed in defining work rules; however, once these rules are made, the bureaucratic leader views them as set in stone, not to be deviated from. Because of its rule-oriented decision making, this style can be viewed as being fair and consistent and one in which similar situations are treated the same.

It is not uncommon for an autocratic leader to work well with a bureaucratic leader who is under her or his command. Typically, a bureaucratic leader has trouble with change and making decisions in a work environment that requires decision-making agility and innovation. Bureaucratic leaders can be considered maintenance leaders.

Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic leaders lead by the shear force of their engaging personalities. Such leaders draw group members together through their ability to engage them and to persuade them to act according to the leader’s direction. The charismatic leader persuades the group member to believe what needs to be accomplished is in the best interest of the organization. Group members are allowed input; however, charismatic leaders tend “to believe more in” themselves “than in their team” (Mind Tools, 1995–2008).

There are two major problems with charismatic leaders. First, they may have a devastating impact on an organization if they lead group members toward achieving an inappropriate goal. A good example of this is the charismatic leadership of the Reverend Jim Jones and the death of his followers in Guyana. Second, should a charismatic leader leave the organization, a “leadership void” can easily occur because charismatic leadership is so dependent on a critical number of followers to be effective. There may not be anyone else duly trained or qualified to step in to take the place of the leader. New leadership styles may not “win over” the group members who were committed to the personality of the previous leader and her or his goals. Groups under charismatic leadership are most successful with leader longevity.

Democratic or Participative Leadership

Democratic or participative leaders allow for group member involvement in decision making, with the leader taking the responsibility for making the decision. Such leaders lead with the premise that group decision making and participation will result in the best decision with the added benefit of group commitment to the decision. Group members’ job satisfaction is higher under this style when compared to employees under other leadership styles. Group members feel more empowered in their work environment and in goal setting and achievement. There is mutual support between the leader and group members. Because group members are involved in the decision-making process they are contributing to their own personal and professional growth as future leaders.

A pitfall associated with participative leadership is that it can lead to the fracturing of the group into subunits if decision-making consensus is not reached or honored. In such cases, morale can suffer, making it increasingly difficult to accomplish tasks and objectives. In addition, this style can allow for the leader to avoid or abdicate her or his responsibility to the group.

Although resulting in a slower approach in the work environment, the end result is often better. This style may not be best suited for emergency response situations, depending on the nature of the emergency and the urgency of quick and decisive decision making.

Laissez-Faire Leadership

Laissez-faire means “‘leave it be’ and is used to describe a leader who leaves his or her colleagues to get on with their work” with minimal or no interference (Mind Tools, 1995–2008). This leadership style involves little or no direction and control. Group-member professional growth occurs rapidly under this leadership style. The laissez-faire leader will frequently communicate with group members and check on their progress; however, for the most part, the group and its members are left alone to accomplish the task at hand.

This style can be useful when the group being led is well trained, highly self-motivated, and has formal or informal subordinate leadership with a history of successfully achieving goals. Laissez-faire leadership can also refer to leaders who are not effectively leading and thereby creating a leadership void. This style is frequently associated with the less-positive aspects of a leaderless organization.

People-Oriented or Relations-Oriented Leadership

The people-oriented or relations-oriented style focuses on the individual group members and is more concerned with them than with completing the task. Key aspects of this style of leadership are centered on group-member development through training, education, and coaching. Group organization and support is important. A positive characteristic of people-oriented leaders is their knowledge of group members’ strengths and weaknesses, which enables them to match each group member with a particular task

Servant Leadership

The servant leader tends to be an informal leader within the group and leads by providing valuable service. Such leaders can also gain influence through their behavior, which is grounded in their code of conduct or moral compass. Servant leadership can be short term, ending when their service, value, or ideal is no longer influential or when a stronger formal leader is present. Servant leaders

· serve and meet the needs of group members

· develop group members to achieve peak performance

· coach and encourage group members

· facilitate personal growth in group members

· build a sense of community

Servant leaders are effective when group members’ needs are met, and they are free to achieve the organization’s mission with a high level of performance. An example of servant leadership was the life of Mother Theresa, who ministered to the poor, sick, orphaned, and dying, while leading charity work in India and other Third World nations.

A problem with this type of leadership is it can become or be viewed as paternalistic.  Mature adult group members may not see themselves as partners with the leader and can come to resent the “parenting” influence.

Task-Oriented Leadership

A task-oriented leader is most concerned with getting the task completed and may exhibit an autocratic leadership style; however, the autocratic style applies only to the specific task. Such leaders will determine the work goals, set the tasks needed to achieve the goals, and decide the personnel required. Such leaders will be actively involved from the beginning to the completion of the task and may be perceived as micromanaging the group. They have difficulty viewing the needs of group members because the task overrides individual member needs.

4. Leadership Theories

For purposes of this course, leadership styles can be grouped into the following eight major leadership theories:

1. “great man”

2. trait

3. contingency

4. situational

5. behavioral

6. participative

7. management

8. relational (Van Wagner, 2008)

 

 

“Great Man” Theory

“Great man” theory asserts that the ability to lead is a natural part of a person from birth, that “great leaders are born, not made” (Van Wagner, 2008). This theory is based in classical literature and a belief that an individual is destined to be a leader from a young age, therefore becoming a “great man.” Because of its classical origins, material regarding this theory is male-oriented and strongly connected to military leadership.

The theory is based in a person’s station in life or social class. For example, a male born into a royal family was assumed to possess leadership ability based on his birth. The theory may also associate with leadership physical traits such as height, musculature, and intelligence. This theory, however, differs from trait theory, which is personality based.

Trait Theory

There are three main points to trait leadership theory:

1. a person is born with inherited traits

2. some of these traits are inherent to leadership

3. a good leader has the correct traits or enough of these traits

Trait theory differs from the “great man” theory in that a person is not born to lead, but rather has certain traits that allow him or her to lead. Certain personality traits are identified in this theory, including calmness, confidence, predictability, persuasiveness, and efficiency. A problem with trait theory is a person may have the identified traits but not be a leader.

Contingency Theory

Contingency theory asserts that “there is no one best way of leading a group and that a leader’s style may be effective in some situations but not others” (ChangingMinds.org. 2008). A person’s ability to lead is affected by various internal and external factors, including leadership style, the capabilities and behaviors of group members, and various other organizational factors. The theory allows for flexibility in response to specific contingencies within the group or organization. It focuses on applying the best leadership style for the organization, whereas situational theory focuses on applying the best style for leading an individual or a small group.

Situational Theory

Situational theory focuses on leadership tailored to the situational variables such as “leader-member relations, task structure and position power” (Fiedler, 1965, pp. 115). For example, during an emergency when consulting with group members is inappropriate and the leader has a good relationship with group members, an autocratic style would be appropriate. However, when the emergency has passed and the leader is in a recovery phase, seeking the input of other group members can be beneficial, and a different leadership style can be used.

Under this theory, there is a push-pull on the leader to be task oriented, relationship oriented, or both. Leaders are encouraged to develop multiple leadership styles to maximize their effectiveness with their group members.

An example of a situational theory is Hersey and Blanchard’s (1977) “life cycle theory of leadership,” which identified four leadership behaviors—telling, selling, participating, and delegating. Depending on the situation, variables a leader would choose to emphasize are described below.

· Telling/directing: high task focus, low relationship focus—leaders define the roles and tasks of the ‘follower’ and supervise them closely. Decisions are made by the leader and announced, so communication is largely one-way. For people who lack competence but are enthusiastic and committed. They need direction and supervision to get them started.

· Selling/coaching: high task focus, high relationship focus—leaders still define roles and tasks, but seeks [sic] ideas and suggestions from the follower. Decisions remain the leader’s prerogative, but communication is much more two-way. For people who have some competence but lack commitment. They need direction and supervision because they are still relatively inexperienced. They also need support and praise to build their self-esteem, and involvement in decision-making to restore their commitment.

· Participating/supporting: low task focus, high relationship focus—leaders pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to the follower. The leader facilitates and takes part in decisions, but control is with the follower. For people who have competence, but lack confidence or motivation. They do not need much direction because of their skills, but support is necessary to bolster their confidence and motivation.

· Delegating: low task focus, low relationship focus—leaders are still involved in decisions and problem-solving, but control is with the follower. The follower decides when and how the leader will be involved. For people who have both competence and commitment. They are able and willing to work on a project by themselves with little supervision or support. (Hersey & Blanchard, The Management of Organizational Behaviour, 1977, as cited in Vanden Driessche, 2007)

Behavioral Theory

The behavioral theory of leadership is based on the belief that “leaders are made, not born” (Van Wagner, 2008). Leadership can be learned from what the leader does. This theory has two dimensions, (1) the concern for group members and (2) the concern for task completion. Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid (1978) illustrates the behavioral theory. It identifies four main leadership styles:

1. Concern for task—Leaders emphasize the achievement of concrete objectives by looking for high levels of productivity and ways to organize people and activities to meet the objectives.

2. Concern for people—Leaders look upon their followers with a human-interest perspective and consider their needs, interests, problems, professional development, and so on. People are not simply regarded as units of production or means to an end.

3. Directive leadership—Leaders are comfortable making decisions for others and expect followers or subordinates to follow instructions.

4. Participative leadership—Leaders using this style share decision making with others (Wright 1996, pp. 36–37).

Participative Theory

Participative leadership theory is based on leaders listening to group feedback before making a decision for the group. Douglas McGregor’s (1960) portrayal of managers as exemplifying Theory X or Theory Y has dominated the discussion about participative theory.

Leaders who subscribe to Theory X assert that group members do not like to work, must be controlled, do not want responsibility, and want to be directed, and therefore require authoritarian leadership, rigid work rules and procedures, and multiple layers of supervision.

Leaders who subscribe to Theory Y assert that group members want to work, can be self-motivated, appreciate recognition, and desire responsibility. Such leaders use positive motivators. Wishing to be problem solvers, they allow greater group member involvement in the development of work rules and procedures and fewer layers of supervision. They also encourage employee self-actualization.

It is suggested that Theory X is best suited for large and complex businesses or manufacturers, whereas Theory Y is best suited for smaller professional or service-oriented businesses.

Management Theory

“Management theories focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance” and “base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments” (Van Wagner, 2008). Leadership involves influencing group members through position power, coercion, rewards, expert power, or charisma (Cordner and Sheehan, 1999, p. 298). Many businesses are applying these theories when they reward successful group members and punish unsuccessful ones.

Relationship Theory

Relationship theory focuses on the interactions between leaders and group members. Applying this theory, leaders work hard at developing their relationship with group members and the relationships among group members in order to increase productivity through positive interaction. Part of this positive interaction is motivating or inspiring each other. There is a strong sense of the greater good. These leaders motivate and inspire people by helping them see the importance and higher good of the task. Although relationship leaders desire good job performance, they are also concerned with individual job satisfaction and development.

A problem associated with this theory is that the leader may become too focused on building and maintaining relationships to the detriment of task completion. Problems can also occur when there is a group member who has difficulty developing or maintaining an appropriate and healthy working relationship with the leader or with other group members.

5. Developing Case Studies

Case studies are valuable learning tools and are a part of your assigned readings. There is a process to follow in developing a case study. The first step is to gather all the data about the case and then organize them to highlight the focus of the case study. “For example, if the study is to highlight” a leader’s failure with a decision, “data would be collected about the” issue to be decided, the decision itself, and its consequences (McNamara, 1997–2008).

The case study narrative is then developed. McNamara (1997–2008) says, “The narrative is a highly readable story that integrates and summarizes key information around the focus of the case study. The narrative should be complete to the extent that it is the eyes and ears for an outside reader to understand what happened regarding the case” without conducting additional research.

The case-study method allows for a real-life situation to instruct based on example. The narrative should identify what went well (successes) and what went wrong (failures). When possible, the narrative can be validated by having the actual case participants review it. This might have been helpful, for example, with the 2007 Minneapolis, Minnesota, bridge collapse.

One case study can be compared with another case study with similar facts in order to isolate any themes or patterns. For example, various case studies about well-known leadership failures can be compared to highlight common themes and the way the failures affected leadership. The comparison would include asking whether different leadership styles or theories could have affected the outcome. The goal of analyzing a case study is to find a better way of handling a similar dilemma that may commonly occur in the workplace.

 

 

Module 2

1. Public-Safety Leadership Roles 

The mission of public-safety leaders is to prevent human-caused and natural disasters, to protect the general populace from injury or death caused by them, and to keep property and infrastructure from being damaged or destroyed. Public-safety leaders are required to operate under adverse conditions and to promote the survivability of government at the local, state, and national levels.

Traditionally, the public-safety realm has included fire services, law enforcement, emergency medical services, and emergency management, although, over time, other professionals such as homeland security professionals, civil code inspectors, public-health inspectors, public-works professionals, and prosecutors have been included. To ensure public safety, leaders in the field must fulfill the following roles effectively and efficiently:

· First and foremost, they must be capable of taking charge. They should be and be known as problem solvers and as the people who allocate assets.

· They fulfill the role of personnel manager either directly and through subordinates, making hiring, advancement, termination, assignment, and training decisions for personnel.

· They must be able to garner assets in order to allocate them. Public-safety assets are gathered through budget requests for personnel and equipment, partnering with businesses, and mutual aid with other agencies or levels of government. Building upon personnel strengths will also “stretch” public-safety assets.

· As resource allocators, public-safety leaders must have strong budgeting skills in order to track resource allocation, pay the bills, plan for the future, and be held accountable during audits. The role of budgeting typically receives little notice; however, no public-safety professional would be able to maintain a leadership role without making certain her budget was not only sufficient but efficiently managed.

· Public-safety leaders are policymakers. All organizations have policies, work rules, and procedures that ensure an effective and efficient work environment in order to meet the public-safety mission. Leaders must not only promulgate appropriate policies, they must also ensure that they are implemented and adhered to.

· Public-safety leaders are planners. Planning is detailing what actions will be taken to accomplish organizational goals and objectives. Strategic planning is crucial to preventing disasters and protecting the general populace from the results. Unfortunately, for a number of local government public-safety leaders, developing local emergency plans is still an area for improvement that must be addressed. In fact, the Nationwide Plan Phase 2 Review Report (2006) calls for local and state governments to improve emergency planning, specifically listing continuity of government and operations as a priority.

· Public-safety leaders must be organizers and reporters. They must organize the work environment, staff, and resources to ensure efficiency and effectiveness in the organization. Fulfilling the role of reporter is also necessary to ensure accountability. Leaders report to other community leaders, to the public, and to their followers.

· Public-safety leaders are the faces of their organizations. They must represent the organization in the best possible light with the media, the public, and other professionals. Under no circumstances, should they knowingly mislead; rather they should be forthright and transparent.

· Public-safety leaders are decision makers. They cannot lead without making decisions, and their decisions must lead to accomplishing the organization’s purpose and goals.

2. Effective Leaders in Public Safety

There are a number of personality traits and behaviors that public safety-leaders need to be effective. Leaders can have any combination of these traits, but regardless, they must build and maintain a supportive power base in order to continue leading, possess a future orientation with the will to accomplish, and be able to relate to people. Effective leaders tend to possess the following personality traits:

· Strong sense of purpose. Clarity of purpose drives consensus building within the group, creates a shared destiny, and can reduce workplace confusion while providing necessary direction, which includes vision, mission, and goals.

· Optimism and the belief that “positive things happen to positive people.” Being positive is a choice. Positive leaders live in a positive atmosphere that group members observe and wish to be a part of. Leaders who choose to exhibit sustained positive energy can motivate and create group cohesion. Sometimes, timing is everything, but so is being positive.

· Expectation of excellence from themselves and from their group members.

· Unwillingness to compromise personal and organizational values.

· Enthusiasm or passion for what they are doing.

· Patience and the correct blend of patience with drive to accomplish their purpose.

· Recognition of the value of knowledge, commitment to life-long-learning, allowing for learning, and support for learning environments.

· Recognition that knowledge is power and willingness to share their knowledge.

· Self-control and willingness to sacrifice their time, energy, personal life, or well-being to achieve their and the group’s purpose.

· High emotional quotient (EQ). They maintain and model appropriate boundaries.

· They have compassion for people, empathy, and a highly developed social conscience.

In addition, effective leaders tend to:

· Challenge current expectations or the status quo, recognizing that change is necessary to move their group or organization forward.

· Focus on what is important and communicate it to the group. This focus is developed into goals and objectives to achieve. Instead of doing many things adequately, leaders focus on excellence in a few areas.

· See conflict as an opportunity to focus on what is important and resolve conflict without burning bridges.

· Live their values and model the behaviors and personality traits they want group members to adopt.

· Communicate exceptionally well. Communication never ceases, with every action or thought designed to further the group’s purpose.

· Enable others to act by clarifying expectations and by building trust.

· Treat people with empathy. Leaders can be kind to others yet firm in their desire to achieve the goals and objectives of the group. In other words, they are firm, fair, and friendly.

· Provide a safe and positive environment for group members to make decisions and take calculated risks.

· Communicate standards that they and group members must follow. These standards include the way success is to be judged. Standards include work-performance benchmarks and behavior norms such as legal requirements and policies. Feedback, encouragement, and support are essential components of the communication process.

· Hold others accountable for their actions and be morally tough.

· Recognize those who contribute to group or organization achievement.

· Delegate tasks and mentor future leaders with increasing responsibility.

Table 2.1 shows the personality traits with the associated behaviors.

Table 2.1 Leadership Traits and Behaviors

Personality Trait	Behavior
Sense of purpose	Identifies and sets goals and objectives, verbalizes a vision, and promotes the vision within the group.
Optimism	Finds the good in any situation and can facilitate the group’s growth as a result of identifying strengths rather than weaknesses.
Expectation of excellence	Models, through personal example, that only excellence will be accepted and expects others to follow suit and develop a similar expectation of excellence.
Trustworthiness	Keeps others informed of the progress of the group, follows through with commitments, and consistently demonstrates they “mean what they say.” They do not gossip and talk about other group members. They keep confidences as appropriate.
Personal and organization values	Shares values and beliefs and adheres to them.
Enthusiasm and passion	Exudes an enthusiastic attitude and verbalizes their passion and vision for their work and the organization. Leaders verbalize a strong sense of excitement and belief in the mission of the organization.
Patience	Generates a sense of calm and willingness to wait for the organization to develop and produce excellence, yet knows when to “push” employees to achieve their potential.
Values knowledge	Constantly finds opportunities to learn and develop professionally and personally. Leaders create and support opportunities for personnel to be involved in ongoing learning experiences.
Self-control	Demonstrates consistency in personality. Staff are not “walking on eggshells” and wondering “what will he or she be like today.”  Leaders demonstrate restraint and control during stressful times and do not panic.
High emotional quotient	Establishes and maintains appropriate personal and professional boundaries. Leaders have common sense and consistently make good decisions without allowing their emotions to make the decisions. They demonstrate compassion and care for people.

3. Current Leadership Practices in Public Safety 

Public-safety leaders understand that preventing disasters and protecting people and property when they do occur is a constant goal, not an end product. Public safety is fluid and dynamic, and good leaders are prepared to embrace and promote necessary change.

In the following paragraphs, we describe a number of public-safety practices that are pragmatic and necessary for successful leadership. Although this list is not all inclusive, it certainly is representative of current practice.

Scanning, Analysis, Response, and Assessment (SARA) 

Many leaders use the decision-making model SARA or a variation of it. SARA requires scanning, analysis, response, and assessment. Scanning means surveying the environment for problems. Analysis involves researching the problem to identify its cause. Response is the action plan that is developed from scanning and analysis. The response can be designed to eliminate the problem, reduce it, reduce the harm it creates, or remove the problem from the organization’s purview. In the latter response, the organization gives the problem to someone more equipped deal with it. Assessment is evaluating the effectiveness of the response.

Needs-Based Motivation 

Public-safety leaders understand and apply “needs-based motivation,” which is grounded in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: physiological → security → social → esteem → self-actualization (Maslow, 1970). Physiological needs are those things necessary for survival. The need for security is the need for safety, order, and stability. The social (love/belonging) need is the desire for interaction with others. Esteem includes self-esteem and respect from others. Self-actualization is the desire for personal growth and maturity, including mastery over situations (Maslow, 1970). Those who meet the needs of their followers will have a more productive workforce and will establish themselves as leaders.

Figure 2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

Another current leadership practice is to strike the proper balance between positive and negative reinforcement in order to produce desirable behavior.

Positive discipline involves a systematic approach that is designed to instruct or guide employees so that they become loyal, dedicated, responsible, and productive members of the organization. From a practical point of view, discipline is considered positive or ‘good’ when all employees share a common sense of purpose, practice self-discipline, and voluntarily follow the policies, procedures, rules, and regulations established to promote order and to facilitate work within the organization. Positive discipline is used to prevent deviation from expectations or to deal with difficult employees without resorting to punishments or other kinds of negative sanctions. (More, Wegener, & Miller, 2003, p. 176)

“Discipline that is based on the use of punishment rather than rewards is referred to as negative discipline” (More, Wegener, & Miller, 2003, p. 180). Punitive and typically adversarial, it is designed to control work behavior. A well-versed leader starts with positive reinforcement and progresses to negative reinforcement when appropriate. For example, if a group member is not meeting a performance expectation, additional training should be provided along with encouragement to meet the expectation. However, if the group member still does not improve, progressive negative discipline can be used such as a documented reprimand, reduced work hours or wages, changes of duties, suspension, or even termination.

Keeping It Simple 

“Keeping it simple” is a practice that allows for clear direction and comprehension. Whether it is in a chaotic event, a training session, or a presentation, keeping it simple will allow for better retention and application of the key points, especially under adverse conditions. Know your audience when applying this principle. For example, fire chiefs nationwide train employees in the incident-command system so that there is a flexible modular command-and-control system using four general staff positions—operations, planning, finance/administration, and logistics. No matter the size of the incident, the leaders of the fire department know that their organization will operate under this command-and-control system every time.

Knowledge of Your Adversary 

Knowing your adversary, whether you are leading an event or facing an opponent, enables you to act decisively. A public-safety leader identifies and researches potential problem areas. For example, leaders in the fire service learn about the properties of hazardous materials in order to have a knowledge base on how to respond to a hazardous-material spill or conflagration.

SWOT Analysis

As stated earlier in this module, effective leaders focus on strengths. Some resources should be expended on strengthening weaknesses, but more importantly, more resources should be allocated to group members’ and the organization’s strengths. By spending too many resources on weaknesses, a leader may abrogate strengths. There are reasons for weaknesses, and strength cannot be developed in everything. Leaders should use the SWOT analysis—strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats—to solve challenges such as crime, wildfires, or terrorist threats.

“The SWOT analysis provides information that is helpful in matching resources and capabilities to the competitive environment in which it operates” (QuickMBA, 1999–2007). Figure 2.2 (adapted from QuickMBA, 1999–2007) demonstrates the analysis.

Figure 2.2 SWOT Analysis Framework

“To develop strategies that take into account the SWOT profile, a matrix of these factors can be constructed. The SWOT matrix (also known as a TOWS Matrix) is shown below:

	Strengths	Weaknesses
Opportunities	S-O strategies	W-O strategies
Threats	S-T strategies	W-T strategies

· S-O strategies pursue opportunities that are a good fit to the company’s strengths.

· W-O strategies overcome weaknesses to pursue opportunities.

· S-T strategies identify ways that the firm can use its strengths to reduce its vulnerability to external threats.

· W-T strategies establish a defensive plan to prevent the firm’s weaknesses from making it highly susceptible to external threats.” (QuickMBA, 2008)

Sacrifice

Leaders should accept and communicate to their group members that sacrifice for the right reasons and the greater good (social utility), is noble and acceptable. Working for the common good is part of the bedrock of public safety.  In an example of the ultimate sacrifice, leaders who emerged on United Airlines Flight 93 on September 11, 2001 chose to attack the terrorist hijackers and died in the process.

Hiring and Retaining the Best People

Successful public-safety leaders focus on hiring and retaining the best people. Enhancing technology may be necessary; however, technology cannot take the place of good leaders and workers. Administrators, supervisors, employees, co-workers, and collaborators are the leaders’ most important assets.

Leaders Avoid Becoming Isolated

Leaders are not on islands. Public safety requires teamwork at the international, national, state, and local levels. What leaders do affects others within their public-safety network. Leaders who allow themselves to become isolated are not in a good leadership position. Group members desire a relationship with their leaders and will gravitate to a leader who will provide that relationship. An isolated leader will eventually be left behind.

On the flip side of isolation is relating with group members and capitalizing on group collaboration in accomplishing goals and objectives. Effective leaders recognize their need for help from their group members.

Leaders Pick Their Battles Wisely

Successful leaders recognize that some fights are not worth fighting and pick battles well by analyzing the pros and cons of the fight. Winning or losing a battle does not mean the war will be won or lost. When successful leaders decide to fight, they fight to win. Winning is okay. When possible, successful leaders create win/win situations. Winning strengthens your position and provides momentum. Momentum is a force that complements winning. It applies in bureaucratic in-fighting, politics, and war.

Assessing and Recognizing the Environment

Leaders recognize that “if it looks like a duck, walks like a duck, and quacks like a duck, it is a duck.” Good leaders are not fooled by fancy packaging or words. Gut checks, intuition, and foresight are innate animal instincts, and it is fine to acknowledge and act upon them. For example, leaders receive information that the organization is running effectively and efficiently from group members, yet periodic work-product checks indicate a gradual decline in quantity and quality of work. The leader recognizes the dichotomy of information and takes action to improve group-member feedback and work product.

Although leaders work at making informed decisions, there are times when they make a decision with little rationale. Effective leaders are able to make correct decisions and to admit it when they make the wrong decision.

Leaders also recognize they are not always right, but neither is the other person. They use critical-thinking skills to assess information and data to determine the effects of their decisions on people and resources. Leaders work to understand, learn, and improve their environment. They are not easily persuaded by a single source of information, but rather consider a wide variety of sources to make good assessments.

Media Management

Media management is crucial to a leader’s continued influence. The media can be a powerful friend or a destructive antagonist. Deciding what information should be released, giving interviews, and fostering transparency are ways to build positive media relations. Rarely can a leader have negative media exposure without risking leadership influence. For example, former FEMA Director Michael D. Brown was relieved of command during the aftermath of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita because of FEMA’s poor response and the resulting negative media exposure.

Preparation for Future Leadership Change

Lastly, a good practice in public-safety leadership is to prepare the organization for a change in leadership. Many public-safety leaders have short-term leadership roles compared with the life span of the organization. Leadership turnover is relatively frequent. Leaders who prepare their group or organization for leadership change minimize the impact of the change and enhance the capability of the group or organization to continue its mission without major disruption.

4. Preparing Public-Safety Leaders

Preparing public-safety leaders is more of a craft than a recipe listing specific ingredients. A number of preparation tools are used, such as education, experience, training, modeling, mentor/mentee relationships, and follower feedback. A sponsor or mentor cannot transform a person into a leader, but she or he can help a person prepare to be a leader. To a large extent, there must be self-development by the leader but not necessarily self-fulfillment, as indicated by John C. Maxwell, an author of several leadership books:

Beginning in the late 60s and early 70s people began talking about “finding themselves,” meaning that they were searching for a way to become self-fulfilled. It’s like making happiness your goal because self-fulfillment is about feeling good. But self-development is different. Much of the time it will make you feel good, but that’s a by-product, not the goal. Self-development is a higher calling; it is the development of our potential so that a person can fulfill the purpose for which she or he was created. There are times when that is fulfilling, but other times it is not. But no matter how it makes us feel, self- development always has one effect: it draws us toward our destiny. (Maxwell, 2003, p. 169)

In an article about the future of public safety, Gene Stephens (2007) detailed a number of skills, traits, and behaviors for future leaders. The article is a synopsis of discussions and presentations at the first Public Safety Leadership Summit in 2007. Stephens noted,

there was agreement that leaders have to be more technology savvy, more amenable to change, and ready to research options and make decisions at a much faster pace than in the 20th Century. Transnational crime and increasing diversity within communities will also create change. Leadership will be demanded at all levels of organizations and beyond—’decentralized and even outsourced’—and recruits will need to be better educated coming on the job and then face lifelong learning to keep up with the demands. ‘Leaders will have to be more communicative with other agencies’…’and Twenty-first Century public safety leaders will be more collaborative and less authoritarian…more efficient and service-delivery oriented.’ (Stephens, 2007)

Education

Education helps prepare a leader, which is not to suggest that an uneducated person cannot be a leader because that is not true, but rather, education:

· provides an understanding of the public-safety leadership role

· increases knowledge of leadership personality traits and behaviors to develop

· improves diversity of thought and awareness of cultural diversity

· enhances empathy for people

· develops communication skills

· increases analytical skills to aid in decision making and the use of discretion

· enhances the recognition of moral and ethical issues in public safety

· develops an appreciation for learning

Experience

Experience is “practical knowledge, skill, or practice derived from direct observation of or participation in events or in a particular activity” (Merriam-Webster OnLine, 2008). Experience is built over time and can eventually result in expertise. Experience teaches a person the way to act in circumstances similar to those in the past. Rarely can a person lead without having some experience base. Logic dictates that the more experience a person has, the more knowledge she or he can draw on to lead. Experience in leadership is frequently a result of increasing levels of responsibility, often referred to as “moving up the chain of command” or “upward mobility.” In most public-safety positions, there is a clear hierarchy and career path for employees.

Training

Leadership training differs from leadership education. Leadership training is shorter in duration with a narrower focus on a specific style, personality trait(s), behavior(s), or skill set. Leadership education is is much broader in scope and includes a more in-depth analysis of multiple leadership styles and theories. Training is designed to be specific to the current task or job assignment. Typical leadership training in public safety includes first-line supervision, intermediate management, and executive development.

Modeling

Modeling can be similar to observation experience, with one main difference. Modeling is style- or leader-specific. The developing leader chooses a style or a leader she or he admires and consciously tries to learn from and emulate that style or leader. For example, a developing leader will study Abraham Lincoln’s leadership because of his effectiveness during war and other crises.

Mentor/Mentee Relationship

The mentor/mentee learning relationship is arguably the most important leadership-preparation tool available to the budding leader. This relationship differs from modeling in the close interaction between the mentor and mentee. The mentor chooses the mentee for leadership development. The quality and the quantity of time together preparing the mentee for leadership are the key components. As discussed earlier, an effective leader prepares for her or his departure, often using the mentor/mentee leadership-preparation tool.

Follower Feedback

Leadership is a craft requiring constant development in order for the leader to remain effective in an ever-changing and dynamic environment. No leader maintains her or his leadership role without the aid of followers or group members. Listening to, analyzing, and using follower feedback in decision making is critical to sustaining leadership. Failure to acknowledge and consider follower feedback will eventually result in a leadership change. Attention to follower feedback can promote leadership development and enhance future decision making.

There are times when a leader leads by making an unpopular decision. Even if he or she does not adhere to part or all of the feedback, if the leader acknowledges and considers it and communicates the reasons for not following the feedback, the leader frequently can maintain her or his leadership role, providing this lack of adherence does not become the norm. The leader must be wise enough to know when to stick with her or his decision, amend the decision, or abandon it, which is why leadership is a craft requiring continuous development.

In Extremis Leadership

In extremis leadership is making decisions under stress that can ultimately mean life or death. Thomas Kolditz (2007) postulates that extreme life-and-death leadership skills can offer profound lessons for leaders in any setting. This form of leadership has a military/public-safety foundation, where leaders routinely deal with high-risk situations, emotional responses by group members and the public, hazardous events, loss of property or lives, and intuitive crisis decision making when time does not allow for gathering information. This form of leadership, however, can be applied in any setting.

Good leaders are confident, optimistic people who can make decisions regarding life and death. They value life and care for people, but in pursuit of their mission, they possess the will to make decisions that can dramatically affect their followers’ well-being. This “value of life” coupled with sense of mission provide followers with purpose, motivation, and direction. Kolditz (2007) believes that leadership in extremis is developed through job competence, the ability to measure and manage the enthusiasm of one’s followers, commitment to lifelong learning and to truth, acknowledgment of shared risk, and being willing to share your followers’ lifestyle.

5. Connecting with Various Generations

Public-safety and homeland-security leaders must be able to adjust their leadership skills to be effective in leading members of different generations. They must understand and adjust to the generational differences in our society. Currently four generation categories have been identified:

1. veteran generation (born 1922–1945)

2. baby-boomer generation (born 1946–1964)

3. Gen X generation (born 1965–1979)

4. Gen Y or millenial generation (born 1980–2000)

The Veteran Generation

The veteran generation lived through the great depression and fought World War II, the Korean War, the Cold War, and the beginning of the Viet Nam War. Members of this generation are frugal, hard workers, loyal to their employers, and interested in building our economy and maintaining a strong national defense. This generation accepts sacrifice for the good of the whole. Because of this generation’s military background and training, teamwork and following the chain of command are second nature. For the most part, the tail end of the veteran generation has retired, is working part time, or is volunteering. Many are being cared for by the baby boomers or Gen X.

The Baby-Boom Generation

Baby boomers were greatly affected by the growth of media (radio and television), the Viet Nam War, recreational drugs, sexual freedom, civil rights, and political dishonesty. They are an active voting community and are midcareer, nearing retirement, or retired. Many are in high leadership positions. After retirement, many baby boomers are starting second careers or work part time and are continuing to be active. There will be a large loss of experience in public-safety fields for the next five-to-seven years as the veteran generation and the baby boomers retire.

Generation X

Generation X’ers are entering the middle of their careers and are rising into higher leadership postions as the baby boomers retire. The mentor/mentee relationship of baby boomers with Gen X is critical to the successful transition of public-safety leadership. Many Gen X’ers grew up in families in which both parents worked outside the home or in single-parent households, so they are independent, have faced tough family dynamics, and can adjust to changing conditions. Gen X’ers lived through diffiult economic times and observed or have lived through corporate downsizing. As a result, they are not as loyal to their employers as previous generations but do commit to the task at hand and to co-workers. This generation has experienced multiple job changes.

Generation Y

Members of the Gen-Y or millennial generation are in the beginning stages of their careers, gaining vast experience via frequent job changes. Education, training, and the mentor/mentee relationship are crucial to their leadership development. Eight key trends of the 1990s and 2000s have had a profound effect on their generational personality:

1. focus on children and family

2. scheduled, structured lives

3. multiculturalism

4. terrorism

5. heroism

6. patriotism

7. parent advocacy

8. and globalism (Raines, 2002)

Gen-Y members are family and community oriented and desire their time off rather than making additional money working overtime or at multiple jobs. They like challenges and group work to include the opportunity to have input and collaborative leadership.

The future of public-safety leadership appears to be in good hands. Gen-X and -Y employees are sharp, self-directed, professional, educated, IT savvy, motivated, committed, versatile, proactive crime fighters, community leaders, and “looking to connect with community, with organization and with coworkers” (Stephens, 2007).