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FIFTH EDITION

John W. Creswell University of Nebraska–Lincoln

Educational Research

Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative

and Qualitative Research

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Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Creswell, John W. Educational research : planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research / John W. Creswell, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. — Fifth edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-354958-4 ISBN-10: 0-13-354958-5 1. Education—Research—Methodology. I. Title. LB1028.C742 2015 370.72—dc23 2013046885

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 0-13-354958-5 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-354958-4

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This text is dedicated to Karen, who provided caring editorial help and support through five editions of this book. You have been my inspiration and thoughtful advocate throughout this project. Thanks for standing beside me.

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Preface

NEW TO THE FIFTH EDITION

You will find several key changes in this edition as a result of reader feedback and the careful review of the last edition by anonymous external reviewers.

● Increased coverage can be found on the quantitative topics of single-subject research and meta-analysis. This coverage especially identifies the processes involved in using these procedures as well as the latest issues and challenges being discussed about them in texts and in journal articles.

● Increased emphasis is mentioned about the more advanced statistical procedures being discussed in the literature. These include structural equation modeling, hier- archical linear modeling, and the use factor analysis, path analysis, and discriminant function analysis. Also in the quantitative approaches, the distinctions among types of variables are expanded as well as the use of causal comparative research approaches versus experiments in the discussion about experimental designs.

● Validity is an important issue in qualitative research. This edition expands the discus- sion about the types of validity strategies and the processes that educational researchers might use.

● The chapter on mixed methods analysis has been updated to reflect current think- ing about mixed methods, especially about the types of basic and advanced designs available.

● The sample articles used in the fourth edition of the text have remained the same. They provide good illustrations of quantitative and qualitative approaches as well as the many research designs covered in this book. As with past editions, these articles are annotated with marginal notes to help readers locate key passages of research and important characteristics of research.

● The references used in this edition have been extensively updated from past editions of this book. Key writers in research methods have issued new editions of books, and readers need to be introduced to these new editions. In addition, new books on re- search methods are continually being published, and readers need to be informed of the latest writings. At the end of each chapter are suggestions for additional resources to consider for more information about certain topics. References to software and their Web sites have been updated when needed.

● The evaluation criteria for each type of research design have been updated to include indicators of higher quality and lower quality for specific criteria. This evaluation should provide a better understanding for both reading studies as well as conducting your own study.

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viii PREFACE

THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE TEXT

The philosophy that guided the development of this text is twofold. First, research involves a process of interrelated activities rather than the application of isolated, unre- lated concepts and ideas. Educators practice research following a general sequence of procedures—from the initial identification of a research problem to the final report of research. This means that understanding the sequence or flow of activities is central to inquiry. Thus, the text begins with specific chapters devoted to each step in the process of research and the inclusion of concepts and ideas within this process.

Second, the educational researcher today needs a large toolbox of approaches to study the complex educational issues in our society. No longer can we, as educators, use only experiments or surveys to address our research problems. Educators in this new century—whether conducting research or reading research to self-inform—need to know about quantitative, qualitative, and combined approaches to inquiry and to have an in-depth understanding of the multiple research designs and procedures used in our studies today. In each step in the process of research, this text will introduce you to quan- titative, qualitative, and combined approaches. Throughout the text, you will learn about the differences and similarities of qualitative and quantitative research. In the last section of the text, you will be introduced to eight distinct quantitative and qualitative research designs or procedures that make up the repertoire of the educational researcher in the quantitative, qualitative, and combined applications of research.

KEY FEATURES

This text offers a truly balanced, inclusive, and integrated overview of the field as it currently stands. As you will see from the table of contents, the book’s coverage is unique in its bal- anced presentation of quantitative and qualitative research. Moreover, it consistently exam- ines foundational issues of research—for example, determining how to approach a project and understanding what constitutes data and how to analyze them—from quantitative, qualitative, and mixed perspectives. This approach helps students understand fundamental differences and similarities among these approaches. This text has three main purposes:

● It provides balanced coverage of quantitative and qualitative research. ● It helps students learn how to begin to conduct research. ● It helps students learn how to read and evaluate research studies.

Let’s look at each of these in detail to see how each can help you achieve your course objectives.

Balances Coverage of Quantitative and Qualitative Research This text provides balanced coverage of all types of research designs. This provides read- ers with a complete picture of educational research as it is currently practiced. The text begins with an overview in Part 1 of the general nature of educational research and the specific quantitative and qualitative approaches to educational research. Next, in Part 2, Chapters 2 through 9, the book examines in depth the steps in the research process:

1. Identifying a research problem 2. Reviewing the literature

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PREFACE ix

3. Specifying a purpose and research questions or hypotheses 4. Collecting either quantitative or qualitative data 5. Analyzing and interpreting either quantitative or qualitative data 6. Reporting and evaluating the research

Looking at the process simultaneously from both quantitative and qualitative perspectives helps students understand what choices a researcher has available and what meaning exists for a particular choice.

After this discussion, in Part 3, students will learn the procedures for conducting spe- cific types of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods studies. Chapters 10 through 17 provide balanced coverage and examples of each of these types of educational research designs: experimental, correlational, survey, grounded theory, ethnographic, narrative, mixed methods, and action research.

Helps Students Learn How to Begin to Conduct Research Both the research process and the design chapters offer the researcher step-by- step guidance in the basic aspects of planning, conducting, and evaluating research. A number of features guide readers through the steps and procedures of research. For example, a fictional beginning researcher, Maria, who is also a high school teacher and new graduate student, is followed throughout Parts 2 and 3 to illustrate one re- searcher’s efforts and to provide students with a realistic perspective of the process of research and the selection of specific research designs. Other features include, but are not limited to, the following:

● Tips on planning and conducting research in “Useful Information for Producers of Research”

● Checklists that summarize key points such as evaluation criteria used to assess the quality of a quantitative or qualitative study

● In-text examples of actual and hypothetical studies that illustrate the correct and incorrect ways of reporting research

● Follow-up activities in “Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research Studies” to help students apply the concepts they’ve just learned

● A “Think-Aloud” feature that describes practices the author has found useful

Helps Students Learn How to Read and Evaluate Research Studies Direct guidance on reading research is offered throughout the text. To further help stu- dents become more skilled at interpreting and evaluating research, the text offers a num- ber of features. Most important among these are the many articles included in the text and the “Useful Information for Consumers of Research” feature:

● The text provides annotated research articles in each of the design chapters in Part 3. Two other articles—one qualitative, one quantitative—appear at the end of Chapter 1. All of these complete articles (there are numerous other, shorter article excerpts in the book) include highlighted marginal annotations that help students understand the structure of articles and the key issues with which a reader should be concerned when evaluating the quality and the applicable scope of each particular piece of research.

● The “Useful Information for Consumers of Research” feature appears at the end of every chapter and offers concrete guidance in interpreting and evaluating research.

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x PREFACE

NEW INTERACTIVE LEARNING FEATURES

Practice Using What You Have Learned These interactive activities appear in Chapters 2–9 and provide opportunities for readers to make key decisions regarding research design and statistical analysis. (See Chapter 3, page 108 for an example).

Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research Studies These interactive activities appear in Chapters 1–9 and allow readers to apply the basic research concepts they’ve just learned by identifying key elements of published studies or considering how the concepts influence planning a new study. (See Chapter 3, page 108 for an example).

Reading Research Interactive Reading Research exercises in Chapters 1 and 10–17 provide readers with scaffolding to read and evaluate published research articles of the types discussed in the target chapter. (See Chapter 12, page 412, for an example.)

Check Your Understanding of Chapter Content Interactive Self-Assessment Chapter Quizzes with feedback enable students to check how well they understand chapter content. (See Chapter 3, pages 91 and 104 for examples.)

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

The following resources are available for instructors to download at pearsonhighered .com/educators:

Online Test Bank The Test Bank contains various types of items—multiple choice, matching, short essay, and fill in the blank—for each chapter. Questions ask students to identify and describe research processes and design characteristics they have learned about and to classify and evaluate quantitative and qualitative studies and research situations.

TestGen TestGen is a powerful test generator available exclusively from Pearson Education publishers. You install TestGen on your personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create your own tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web. A test bank, which is also called a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test items, organized by chapter and ready for your use in creating a test, based on the associated textbook material. Assessments— including equations, graphs, and scientific notation—may be created in either paper-and- pencil or online form.

The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:

TestGen Testbank file—PC TestGen Testbank file—MAC TestGen Testbank—Blackboard 9 TIF TestGen Testbank—Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF Angel Test Bank (zip) D2L TestBank (zip) Moodle Test Bank Sakai Test Bank (zip)

PowerPoint® Slides These slides include key concept summarizations and other graphic aids to help students understand, organize, and remember core concepts and ideas.

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PREFACE xi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book is a culmination of 35 years of experience in conducting both quantitative and qualitative research in education and the social sciences. It could not have been written without the capable assistance of numerous individuals such as graduate students, research assistants, and colleagues at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Dr. Dana Miller assisted in a timely and thorough review of many chapters. Dr. Vicki Plano Clark provided editorial assistance and a key conceptual eye for missing details as well as useful leads for sample illustrative articles. Amanda Garrett has provided invaluable assistance in locating up-to- date materials and in conceptualizing ideas. Dr. Ron Shope developed the initial PowerPoint presentation. Others have been helpful as well. Dong Dong Zhang provided inspiration for many applied ideas and support at critical phases of the project. Other graduate students offered useful ideas, including Michael Toland, Kathy Shapely, and many other students in my graduate program area (quantitative and qualitative methods of education), as did stu- dents in my classes on the foundations of educational research. Dr. Bill Mickelson served as a statistics consultant and quantitative analysis reviewer on earlier editions.

I am also indebted to Kevin Davis at Pearson for initiating this book and providing the vision to launch it as the “next-generation” research methods text in education. Gail Gottfried, my development editor at Pearson for this edition, provided patience, support, and useful insights throughout the project.

Numerous reviewers helped to shape this book: Sheri Berkeley, George Mason Uni- versity; Anne Dahlman, Minnesota State University–Mankato; Kathleen Gee, California State University, Sacramento; Tracey Stuckey-Mickell, The Ohio State University; and Maria D. Vasquez, Florida Atlantic University.

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Brief Contents

PART 1 An Introduction to Educational Research 1

CHAPTER 1 The Process of Conducting Research Using Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches 2

PART 2 The Steps in the Process of Research 57

CHAPTER 2 Identifying a Research Problem 58

CHAPTER 3 Reviewing the Literature 79

CHAPTER 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 109

CHAPTER 5 Collecting Quantitative Data 139

CHAPTER 6 Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data 172

CHAPTER 7 Collecting Qualitative Data 203

CHAPTER 8 Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data 235

CHAPTER 9 Reporting and Evaluating Research 265

PART 3 Research Designs 293

CHAPTER 10 Experimental Designs 294

CHAPTER 11 Correlational Designs 338

CHAPTER 12 Survey Designs 378

CHAPTER 13 Grounded Theory Designs 425

CHAPTER 14 Ethnographic Designs 465

CHAPTER 15 Narrative Research Designs 503

CHAPTER 16 Mixed Methods Designs 536

CHAPTER 17 Action Research Designs 578

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Research Designs Associated with Quantitative and Qualitative Research 26 The Important Ethical Issues 26 The Skills Needed to Design and Conduct Research 26

Useful Information for Producers of Research 27

Useful Information for Consumers of Research 27

Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research Studies 27

Reading Research: A Quantitative Study 28

Reading Research: A Qualitative Study 41

PART 2 The Steps in the Process of Research 57

Chapter 2 Identifying a Research Problem 58

What Is a Research Problem, and Why Is It Important? 59

How Does the Research Problem Differ from Other Parts of Research? 59

Can and Should Problems Be Researched? 61 Can You Gain Access to People and Sites? 61 Can You Find Time, Locate Resources, and Use Your Skills? 61 Should the Problem Be Researched? 62

How Does the Research Problem Differ in Quantitative and Qualitative Research? 63

How Do You Write a “Statement of the Problem” Section? 64 The Topic 64 The Research Problem 66

Justification of the Importance of the Problem 66 Deficiencies in What We Know 69 The Audience 70

What Are Some Strategies for Writing the “Statement of the Problem” Section? 70

A Template 70 Other Writing Strategies 71 Think-Aloud about Writing a “Statement of the

Problem” 72 Examples of “Statement of the Problem” Sections 72 Reexamining the Parent Involvement and the Mothers’

Trust in School Principals Studies 75

Contents

PART 1 An Introduction to Educational Research 1

Chapter 1 The Process of Conducting Research Using Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches 2

A Definition of Research and Its Importance 3 Research Adds to Our Knowledge 4 Research Improves Practice 4 Research Informs Policy Debates 6 Several Problems with Research Today 6

The Six Steps in the Process of Research 7 Identifying a Research Problem 7 Reviewing the Literature 8 Specifying a Purpose for Research 9 Collecting Data 9 Analyzing and Interpreting the Data 10 Reporting and Evaluating Research 10

The Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Research in Each of the Six Steps 11

Quantitative Research Characteristics 13 Qualitative Research Characteristics 16 Similarities and Differences between Quantitative

and Qualitative Research 19 Research Designs Associated with Quantitative and Qualitative Research 20

Important Ethical Issues in Conducting Research 22 Institutional Review Boards 22 Professional Associations 22 Ethical Practices throughout the Research Process 23 Some Ethical Issues in Data Collection 23 Some Ethical Issues in Data Reporting 24

Skills Needed to Design and Conduct Research 24 Solving Puzzles 24 Lengthening Your Attention Span 25 Learning to Use Library Resources 25 Writing, Editing, and More Writing 25

Key Ideas in the Chapter 25 The Definition and Importance of Educational Research 25 The Six Steps in the Process of Research 25 The Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Research 26 The Types of

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xvi CONTENTS

How Do You Design Quantitative Purpose Statements, Research Questions, and Hypotheses? 112

Specify Variables 112 The Family of Variables 114 Think-Aloud about Identifying Variables? 119 Theories and Testing of Variables 120 Writing Quantitative Purpose Statements 122 Writing Quantitative Research Questions 123 Writing Quantitative Hypotheses 125

How Do You Design Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions? 127

Differentiating between Quantitative and Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions 127

The Central Phenomenon in Qualitative Research 128 Emerging Processes in Qualitative Research 129

Writing Qualitative Purpose Statements 130 Writing Qualitative Research Questions 131

Reexamining the Parent Involvement and Mothers’ Trust in Principals Studies 135

Key Ideas in the Chapter 136 Distinguish among Purpose Statements, Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Objectives 136 Know Why These Statements and Questions Are Important 136 Write Quantitative Purpose Statements, Research Questions, and Hypotheses 136 Write Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions 136

Useful Information for Producers of Research 136 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 137 Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research Studies 137 Conducting Your Research 138 Practice Using What You Have Learned 138

Chapter 5 Collecting Quantitative Data 139

Five Steps in the Process of Data Collection 139 What Participants Will You Study? 140

Identify Your Unit of Analysis 140 Specify the Population and Sample 140

What Permissions Will You Need? 146 Obtain Different Types of Permissions 146 Obtain Informed Consent 146

What Information Will You Collect? 148 Specify Variables from Research Questions and  Hypotheses 149 Operationally Define Each Variable 149 Choose Types of Data and  Measures 150

What Instrument Will You Use to Collect Data? 156 Locate or Develop an Instrument 156 Search for an Instrument 157 Criteria for Choosing a Good Instrument 157 Interval/Ratio Scales 165 Think-Aloud about Finding and Selecting an Instrument 166

Key Ideas in the Chapter 76 Define a Research Problem and Explain Its Importance 76 Distinguish between a Research Problem and Other Parts of Research 76 Criteria for Deciding Whether a Problem Can and Should Be Researched 76 The Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Problems 76 The Five Elements of a “Statement of the Problem” Section 76 Strategies Useful in Writing the “Statement of the Problem” Section 76

Useful Information for Producers of Research 76 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 77 Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research Studies 77 Conducting Your Research 78 Practice Using What You Have Learned 78

Chapter 3 Reviewing the Literature 79

What Is a Literature Review, and Why Is It Important? 80 How Does the Literature Review Differ for Quantitative and Qualitative Studies? 80

What Are the Five Steps in Conducting a Literature Review? 81

Identify Key Terms 81 Locate Literature 82 Critically Evaluate and Select the Literature 91 Organize the Literature 92 Write a Literature

Review 98 Reexamining the Parent Involvement and the Mothers’

Trust in Principals Studies 104 Literature Review Analysis in a Quantitative Study 104 Literature Review Analysis in a Qualitative Study 105

Key Ideas in the Chapter 106 What Is a Review of the Literature, and Why Is It Important? 106 The Five Steps in Conducting a Literature Review 106

Useful Information for Producers of Research 107 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 107 Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research Studies 108 Conducting Your Research 108 Practice Using What You Have Learned 108

Chapter 4 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses 109

What Are Purpose Statements, Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Objectives? 110

The Purpose Statement 110 Research Questions 111 Hypotheses 111 Research Objectives 111

Why Are These Statements and Questions Important? 112

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CONTENTS xvii

Chapter 7 Collecting Qualitative Data 203

What Are the Five Process Steps in Qualitative Data Collection? 204

What Are the Different Sampling Approaches for Selecting Participants and Sites? 204

Purposeful Sampling 205 Sample Size or Number of Research Sites 208

What Types of Permissions Will Be Required To Gain Access to Participants and Sites? 209

Seek Institutional Review Board Approval 209 Gatekeepers 210

What Types of Qualitative Data Will You Collect? 211 Observations 211 Interviews 216 Documents 221 Audiovisual Materials 223

What Procedures Will Be Used to Record Data? 224 Using Protocols 224 Think-Aloud about Observing 226

What Field and Ethical Issues Need to Be Anticipated? 227 Field Issues 227 Ethical Issues 229

Revisiting the Mothers’ Trust in Principals Qualitative Study 231

Key Ideas in the Chapter 232 Five Process Steps in Collecting Data 232 Sampling Approaches to Selecting Participants and Sites 232 Permissions Required to Gain Access 232

Various Types of Qualitative Data to Collect 232 Procedures for Recording Data 232 Field Issues

and Ethical Considerations in Data Collection 232 Useful Information for Producers of Research 233 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 233 Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research Studies 233 Conducting Your Research 234 Practice Using What You Have Learned 234

Chapter 8 Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data 235

What Are the Six Steps in Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data? 236

How Do You Prepare and Organize the Data for Analysis? 237 Organize Data 237 Transcribe Data 238

Analyze by Hand or Computer 238 Use of Qualitative Computer Programs 240

How Do You Explore and Code the Data? 242 Explore the General Sense of the Data 242 Code the Data 242 Think-Aloud about Coding a Transcript 244

How Do You Use Codes to Build Description and Themes? 246

Description 246 Themes 247 Layering and Interrelating Themes 250

How Will You Administer the Data Collection? 167 Standardization 167 Ethical Issues 168

Reexamining the Quantitative Parent Involvement Study 168 Key Ideas in the Chapter 169

State the Five Steps in the Process of Quantitative Data Collection 169 Identify How to Select Participants for a Study 169 Identify the Permissions Needed for a Study 169 List Different Options for Collecting Information 169 Locate, Select, and Assess an Instrument(s) for Use in Data Collection 169 Describe Procedures for Administering Quantitative Data Collection 169

Useful Information for Producers of Research 170 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 170 Understanding Concepts and Evaluating

Research Studies 171 Conducting Your Research 171 Practice Using What You Have Learned 171

Chapter 6 Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data 172

What Are the Steps in the Process of Quantitative Data Analysis? 173

How Do You Prepare the Data for Analysis? 173 Score the Data 173 Determine the Types of Scores to Analyze 175 Select a Statistical Program 176 Input Data 177 Clean and Account for Missing Data 179

How Do You Analyze the Data? 180 Conduct Descriptive Analysis 181 Conduct Inferential Analysis 185

How Do You Report the Results? 194 Tables 194 Figures 195 Present Results 195

How Do You Interpret the Results? 196 Summarize the Major Results 196 Explain Why the Results Occurred 196 Advance Limitations 197 Suggest Future Research 198

Reexamining Data Analysis and Interpretation in the Parent Involvement Study 198

Key Ideas in the Chapter 199 Identify the Steps in the Process of Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data 199 Preparing Your Data for Analysis 199 Analyzing the Data 199 Reporting the Results 200

Interpreting the Results 200 Useful Information for Producers of Research 200 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 201 Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research Studies 201 Conducting Your Research 202 Practice Using What You Have Learned 202

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xviii CONTENTS

Report 289 Sensitive, Ethical, and Scholarly Writing Practices 289 Criteria for Evaluating a Research Report 289

Useful Information for Producers of Research 289 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 290 Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research

Studies 290 Conducting Your Research 291 Practice Using What You Have Learned 291

PART 3 Research Designs 293

Chapter 10 Experimental Designs 294

What Is an Experiment, When Should You Use It, and How Did It Develop? 295

When Do You Use an Experiment? 295 Causal Comparative Research versus Experiments 295

When Did Experiments Develop? 295 What Are Key Characteristics of Experiments? 296

Random Assignment 297 Control over Extraneous Variables 297 Manipulating Treatment Conditions 301 Outcome Measures 302 Group Comparisons 302 Threats to Validity 304

What Are the Types of Experimental Designs? 307 Between-Group Designs 308 Within-Group or Individual Designs 314

What Are Potential Ethical Issues in Experimental Research? 321

What Are the Steps in Conducting Experimental Research? 323

Step 1. Decide if an Experiment Addresses Your Research Problem 323 Step 2. Form Hypotheses to Test Cause-and-Effect Relationships 324 Step 3. Select an Experimental Unit and Identify Study Participants 324 Step 4. Select an Experimental Treatment and Introduce It 325 Step 5. Choose a Type of Experimental Design 326 Step 6. Conduct the Experiment 326 Step 7. Organize and Analyze the Data 326 Step 8. Develop an Experimental Research Report 326

How Do You Evaluate Experimental Research? 327 Key Ideas in the Chapter 327

A Definition of Experimental Research, When to Use It, and How It Developed 327 Key Characteristics of Experimental Research 328 Types of Experimental Designs 328 Ethical Issues in Experimental Research 328 Steps in Conducting an Experiment 328 Evaluating an Experiment 328

Useful Information for Producers of Research 329 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 329

How Do You Represent and Report Findings? 252 Representing Findings 252 Reporting Findings 253

How Do You Interpret Findings? 256 Summarize Findings 257 Convey Personal Reflections 257 Make Comparisons to the Literature 257 Offer Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research 258

How Do You Validate the Accuracy of Your Findings? 258 Reexamining Qualitative Data Analysis in the Mothers’

Trust in Principals Case Study 260 Key Ideas in the Chapter 260

Six Steps in the Process of Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data 260 Prepare and Organize the Data for Analysis 261 Explore and Code the Data 261 Coding to Build Description and Themes 261 Represent and Report Qualitative Findings 261 Interpret the Findings 261 Validate the Accuracy of the Findings 261

Useful Information for Producers of Research 262 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 262 Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research Studies 263 Conducting Your Research 263 Practice Using What You Have Learned 263

Chapter 9 Reporting and Evaluating Research 265

What Is a Research Report, and What Are Its Types? 266 What Audience Will Receive the Report? 266 What Are the Types of Research Reports? 267

How Should You Structure Your Report? 272 Look at the Physical Structure of Research Reports 272

Design an Appropriate Quantitative Structure 273 Design an Appropriate Qualitative Structure 273 Think-Aloud about the Structure of a Study 276

How Do You Write in a Sensitive, Ethical, and Scholarly Way? 277

Use Language That Reduces Bias 277 Encode Scholarly Terms into Your Research 278 Use Ethical Reporting and Writing of Research Results 278 Use an Appropriate Point of View 280 Balance Your Research and Content 281 Interconnect Sections for Consistency 281 Advance a Concise Title 282

How Do You Evaluate the Quality of Your Research? 282 Employ Appropriate Standards 283 Quantitative Standards 283 Qualitative Standards 283

Evaluate with a Process Approach 285 Reexamining the Parent Involvement and Mothers’ Trust in

Principals Studies 288 Key Ideas in the Chapter 288

The Purpose of a Research Report and Its Types 288 How to Structure Your Research

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CONTENTS xix

What Are the Types of Survey Designs? 380 Cross-Sectional Survey Designs 380 Longitudinal Survey Designs 382

What Are the Key Characteristics of Survey Research? 383 Sampling from a Population 384 Questionnaires and Interviews 385 Instrument Design 388 Response Rate 393

How Do You Construct and Analyze a Mailed Questionnaire? 395

The Cover Letter 395 Overall Questionnaire Construction 401 Data Analysis of a Research Questionnaire 401

How Do You Design and Conduct an Interview Survey? 401

Stance of the Interviewer 402 Training of Interviewers 402 Steps in Interviewing 403

A Telephone Interview Guide 403 What Are Potential Ethical Issues in Survey Research? 405 What Are the Steps in Conducting Survey Research? 406

Step 1. Decide if a Survey Is the Best Design to Use 406 Step 2. Identify the Research Questions or Hypotheses 406 Step 3. Identify the Population, the Sampling Frame, and the Sample 406 Step 4. Determine the Survey Design and Data Collection Procedures 406 Step 5. Develop or Locate an Instrument 407 Step 6. Administer the Instrument 407 Step 7. Analyze the Data to Address the Research Questions or Hypotheses 407 Step 8. Write the Report 407

How Do You Evaluate Survey Research? 407 Key Ideas in the Chapter 409

Defining Survey Research, When to Use It, and How It Developed 409 Types of Survey Designs 409 Key Characteristics of Survey Research 409 Constructing and Using a Mailed Questionnaire 409 Designing and Conducting an Interview Survey 409 Potential Ethical Issues in Survey Research 409 Steps in Conducting Survey Research 410 Criteria for Evaluating Survey Research 410

Useful Information for Producers of Research 410 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 411 Additional Resources You Might Examine 411 Examples of Studies That Use a Survey Design 412 Reading Research: A Survey Study 412

Chapter 13 Grounded Theory Designs 425

What Is Grounded Theory Research, When Should You Use It, and How Did It Develop? 426

When Do You Use Grounded Theory? 426 How Did Grounded Theory Develop? 426

Additional Resources You Might Examine 330 Examples of Studies That Use an Experimental Design 331 Reading Research: An Experimental Study 331

Chapter 11 Correlational Designs 338

What Is Correlational Research, When Do You Use It, and How Did It Develop? 339

When Do You Use Correlational Research? 339 How Did Correlational Research Develop? 339

What Are the Types of Correlational Designs? 340 The Explanatory Design 341 The Prediction Design 342

What Are the Key Characteristics of Correlational Designs? 343

Displays of Scores 343 Associations between Scores 346 Multiple Variable Analysis 349 Using Advanced Correlational Statistical Procedures 355

Potential Ethical Issues in Conducting Correlational Research 356

What Are the Steps in Conducting a Correlational Study? 358 Step 1. Determine if a Correlational Study Best Addresses the Research Problem 358 Step 2. Identify Individuals to Study 358 Step 3. Identify Two or More Measures for Each Individual in the Study 358 Step 4. Collect Data and Monitor Potential Threats 359 Step 5. Analyze the Data and Represent the Results 359

Step 6. Interpret the Results 360 How Do You Evaluate a Correlational Study? 361 Key Ideas in the Chapter 362

The Definition, Use, and Development of Correlational Research 362 Types of Correlational Designs 362 Key Characteristics of Correlational Designs 362 Ethical Issues in Conducting Correlational Research 362 Steps in Conducting a Correlational Study 363 Criteria for Evaluating a Correlational Study 363

Useful Information for Producers of Research 363 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 363 Additional Resources You Might Examine 363 Examples of Studies That Use a Correlational Design 365 Reading Research: A Correlational Study 365

Chapter 12 Survey Designs 378

What Is Survey Research, When Do You Use It, and How Did It Develop? 379

When Do You Use Survey Research? 379 How Did Survey Research Develop? 379

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Ethical Issues in Conducting Ethnographic Research 478 What Are the Steps in Conducting an Ethnography? 479

Step 1. Identify Intent and the Type of Design and Relate Intent to Your Research Problem 480 Step 2. Discuss Approval and Access Considerations 482 Step 3. Use Appropriate Data Collection Procedures 482 Step 4. Analyze and Interpret Data within a Design 482 Step 5. Write the Report Consistent with Your Design 483

How Do You Evaluate an Ethnography? 483 Key Ideas in the Chapter 484

Defining Ethnographic Research, Its Use, and Its Development 484 Three Types of Ethnographic Designs 485 Potential Ethical Issues in Ethnographic Research 485 Steps in Conducting an Ethnography 485 Criteria for Evaluating an Ethnography Study 485

Useful Information for Producers of Research 486 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 486 Additional Resources You Might Examine 487 Examples of Studies That Use an Ethnographic Design 488 Reading Research: An Ethnographic Study 488

Chapter 15 Narrative Research Designs 503

What Is Narrative Research, When Do You Use It, and How Did It Develop? 504

When Do You Use Narrative Research? 504 How Did Narrative Research Develop? 504

What Are the Types of Narrative Designs? 505 Who Writes or Records the Story? 506 How Much of a Life Is Recorded and Presented? 506 Who Provides the Story? 506 Is a Theoretical Lens Being Used? 507 Can Narrative Forms Be Combined? 507

What Are the Key Characteristics of Narrative Designs? 507 Individual Experiences 509 Chronology of the Experiences 510 Collecting Individual Stories 510 Restorying 511 Coding for Themes 513 Context or Setting 514

Collaborating with Participants 514 What Are Some Potential Ethical Issues in Gathering

Stories? 514 What Are the Steps in Conducting Narrative Research? 515

Step 1. Identify a Phenomenon to Explore That Addresses an Educational Problem 516 Step 2. Purposefully Select an Individual from Whom You Can Learn about the Phenomenon 517 Step 3. Collect the Story from That Individual 517 Step 4. Restory or Retell the Individual’s Story 517 Step 5. Collaborate with the Participant–Storyteller 517

Step 6. Write a Story about the Participant’s Experiences 518 Step 7. Validate the Accuracy of the Report 518

Types of Grounded Theory Designs 427 The Systematic Design 427 The Emerging Design 431 The Constructivist Design 432

Choosing Among the Designs 433 The Key Characteristics of Grounded Theory Research 434

A Process Approach 434 Theoretical Sampling 435 Constant Comparative Data Analysis 437 A Core Category 438 Theory Generation 439 Memos 441

Potential Ethical Issues in Grounded Theory Research 442 What Are the Steps in Conducting Grounded Theory

Research? 443 Step 1. Decide if a Grounded Theory Design Best Addresses the Research Problem 443 Step 2. Identify a Process to Study 443 Step 3. Seek Approval and Access 444 Step 4. Conduct Theoretical Sampling 444 Step 5. Code the Data 444 Step 6. Use Selective Coding and Develop the Theory 445 Step 7. Validate Your Theory 445 Step 8. Write a Grounded Theory Research Report 445

How Do You Evaluate Grounded Theory Research? 445

Key Ideas in the Chapter 446 What Grounded Theory Is, When to Use It, and How It Developed 446 Three Types of Grounded Theory Designs 447 Key Characteristics of Grounded Theory Research 447 Potential Ethical Issues in Grounded Theory Research 447 Steps in Conducting a Grounded Theory Study 447 Evaluating the Quality of a Grounded Theory Study 447

Useful Information for Producers of Research 448 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 448 Additional Resources You Might Examine 448 Examples of Studies That Use a Grounded Theory Design 450 Reading Research: A Grounded Theory Study 450

Chapter 14 Ethnographic Designs 465

What Is Ethnographic Research, When Should You Use It, and How Did It Develop? 466

When Do You Conduct an Ethnography? 466 How Did Ethnographic Research Develop? 466

What Are the Types of Ethnographic Designs? 468 Realist Ethnographies 468 Case Studies 469

Critical Ethnographies 470 What Are the Key Characteristics of Ethnographic

Research? 472 Cultural Themes 472 A Culture-Sharing Group 473 Shared Patterns of Behavior, Belief, and Language 474 Fieldwork 474 Description, Themes, and Interpretation 476 Context or Setting 477 Researcher Reflexivity 478

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CONTENTS xxi

Key Ideas in the Chapter 560 Mixed Method Research, Its Use, and Its Development 560

Types of Mixed Methods Designs 560 Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Research 560

Potential Ethical Issues in Mixed Methods Research 561 Steps Used in Conducting Mixed Methods Research 561 Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study 561

Useful Information for Producers of Research 561 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 562 Additional Resources You Might Examine 562 Examples of Studies That Use a Mixed Methods Design 563 Reading Research: A Mixed Methods Study 563

Chapter 17 Action Research Designs 578

What Is Action Research, When Do You Use It, and How Did It Develop? 579

When Do You Use Action Research? 579 How Did Action Research Develop? 579

What Are the Types of Action Research Designs? 581 Practical Action Research 581 Participatory Action Research 584

What Are the Key Characteristics of Action Research? 588 A Practical Focus 588 The Teacher–Researcher’s Own Practices 588 Collaboration 588 A Dynamic Process 589 A Plan of Action 589

Sharing Research 589 What Are Some Potential Ethical Issues in Action

Research? 590 What Are the Steps in Conducting an Action Research

Study? 590 Step 1. Determine If Action Research Is the Best Design to Use 591 Step 2. Identify a Problem to Study 591 Step 3. Locate Resources to Help Address the Problem 591 Step 4. Identify Information You Will Need 591 Step 5. Implement the Data Collection 591 Step 6. Analyze the Data 592

Step 7. Develop a Plan for Action 592 Step 8. Implement the Plan and Reflect 592

How Do You Evaluate an Action Research Study? 593 Key Ideas in the Chapter 594

Definition of Action Research, Its Use, and Its Development 594 Types of Action Research Designs 594 Key Characteristics of Action Research 594 Potential Ethical Issues in Action Research 594 Steps in Conducting an Action Research Study 595 Evaluating an Action Research Study 595

Useful Information for Producers of Research 595 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 595 Additional Resources You Might Examine 596 Examples of Studies That Use an Action Research Design 597 Reading Research: An Action Research Study 597

How Do You Evaluate Narrative Research? 518 Key Ideas in the Chapter 519

What Is Narrative Research, When Is It Used, and How Did It Develop? 519 The Types of Narrative Designs 519 The Key Characteristics of Narrative Designs 520 Potential Ethical Issues in Gathering Stories 520 Steps in Conducting a Narrative Study 520 Evaluating a Narrative Study 520

Useful Information for Producers of Research 520 Useful Information for Consumers of Research 521 Additional Resources You Might Examine 521 Examples of Studies That Use a Narrative Design 523 Reading Research: A Narrative Design Study 523

Chapter 16 Mixed Methods Designs 536

What Is Mixed Methods Research, When Is It Used, and How Did It Develop? 537

When Do You Conduct a Mixed Methods Study? 537 How Did Mixed Methods Research Develop? 538

What Are the Types of Mixed Methods Designs? 541 The Convergent Design 543 The Explanatory Sequential Design 545 The Exploratory Sequential Design 546 The Experimental Design 547 The Social Justice Design 549 Multistage Evaluation Design 550

What Are the Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs? 551

Collect and Analyze Quantitative and Qualitative Data 552 Use Rigorous Methods 552

Integration (Combining the Databases) 553 Use a Specific Mixed Methods Design 553 Frame the Study within Theory and Philosophy 554 Give Priority to Either Quantitative or Qualitative Research or Both 554 Sequence the Quantitative and Qualitative Methods 554 Diagram the Procedures 555

What Are Some Potential Ethical Issues in Mixed Methods Research? 555

What Are the Steps in Conducting a Mixed Methods Study? 556

Step 1. Determine if a Mixed Methods Study Is Feasible 556 Step 2. Identify a Rationale for Mixing Methods 556 Step 3. Identify a Data Collection Strategy 557 Step 4. Develop Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods Questions 557 Step 5. Collect Quantitative and Qualitative Data 558 Step 6. Analyze Data Separately, Concurrently, or Both 558 Step 7. Write the Report as a One- or Two-Phase Study or a Multiple- Stage Study 558

How Do You Evaluate a Mixed Methods Study? 559

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Appendix A Answers to the Chapter Study Questions 603

Appendix B Determine Size Using Sample Size Tables 606

Appendix C Commonly Used Statistics in Educational Research 610

Appendix D Nonnormal Distribution 611

Appendix E Strategies for Defending a Research Proposal 612

Glossary 614

References 625

Author Index 633

Subject Index 637

1

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Consider research your personal journey. It will be challenging but also exciting. Pack along for your journey a tool kit. In Chapter 1, you will be introduced to the basic supplies. In your pack, place a solid understanding of “research.” Also include a map—the six steps in the process of conducting research. Realize that on this journey, you need to respect people and the places you visit. Enjoy the process using your natural skills, such as your ability to solve puzzles, use library resources, and write. After learning the process of research, decide on which of two major paths—quantitative or qualitative research—you will follow. Each is viable, and, in the end, you may choose to incorporate both, but as you begin a study, consider one of the paths for your research journey.

Let us begin.

An Introduction to Educational Research

P A R T 1

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2

What is research? Research is a process in which you engage in a small set of logical steps. In this chapter, I define research, discuss why it is important, advance six steps for conducting research, and identify how you can conduct research ethi- cally by employing skills that you already have. You can approach research in two ways—through a quantitative study or a qualitative study—depending on the type of problem you need to research. Your choice of one of these approaches will shape the procedures you use in each of the six steps of research. In this chapter, I explore the many ways these two approaches are similar and different.

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Define and describe the importance of educational research. ● Describe the six steps in the process of research. ● Identify the characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research in the six steps. ● Identify the type of research designs associated with quantitative and qualitative

research. ● Discuss important ethical issues in conducting research. ● Recognize skills needed to design and conduct research.

To begin, consider Maria, a teacher with 10 years of experience who teaches English at a midsize metropolitan high school. Lately, a number of incidents in the school district have involved students possessing weapons:

● A teacher found a 10th grader hiding a knife in his locker. ● A 12th-grade student threatened another student, telling him “he wouldn’t see the

light of day” unless he stopped harassing her. ● At a nearby high school, a student pointed a handgun at another student outside

the school.

1

The Process of Conducting Research Using Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches

C H A P T E R

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These incidents alarm district officials, school administrators, and teachers. The principal forms a committee made up of administrators and teachers to develop guidelines about how the school should respond to these situations. In response to a call for teachers to serve on this committee, Maria volunteers immediately.

Maria sees the school committee assignment and her graduate program’s research study requirement as mutual opportunities to research school violence and weapon possession and to have a positive impact on her school. Where does she begin?

Maria’s situation of balancing the dual roles of professional and graduate student may be familiar to you. Let’s assess her present research situation:

● Maria recognizes the need to closely examine an important issue—school violence and weapons at school—although she is new to research. However, she is not a stranger to looking up topics in libraries or to searching the Internet when she has a question about something. She has occasionally looked at a few research jour- nals, such as the High School Journal, the Journal of Educational Research, and Theory Into Practice, in her school library, and she has overheard other teachers talking about research studies on the subject of school violence. Although she has no research background, she expects that research will yield important findings for her school committee and also help her fulfill the requirement to conduct a small- scale research study for her graduate degree.

● To complete the required research for her graduate program, Maria must overcome her fears about planning and conducting a study. To do this, she needs to think about research not as a large, formidable task but rather as a series of small, man- ageable steps. Knowing these smaller steps is key to the success of planning and completing her research.

Your situation may be similar to Maria’s. At this stage, your concerns may start with the question “What is research?”

A DEFINITION OF RESEARCH AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue. At a general level, research consists of three steps:

1. Pose a question 2. Collect data to answer the question 3. Present an answer to the question

This should be a familiar process. You engage in solving problems every day, and you start with a question, collect some information, and then form an answer. Although there are a few more steps in research than these three, this is the overall framework for research. When you examine a published study or conduct your own study, you will find these three parts as the core elements.

Not all educators have an understanding and appreciation of research. For some, research may seem like something that is important only for faculty members in colleges and universities. Although it is true that college and university faculty members value and conduct research, personnel in other educational settings, such as school psychologists, principals, school board members, adult educators, college administrators, and graduate students, also read and use research. Research is important for three reasons.

4 PART 1 An Introduction to Educational Research

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Research Adds to Our Knowledge Educators strive for continual improvement. This requires addressing problems or issues and searching for potential solutions. Adding to knowledge means that educators un- dertake research to contribute to existing information about issues. We are all aware of pressing educational issues being debated today, such as the integration of AIDS educa- tion into the school curriculum.

Research plays a vital role in addressing these issues. Through research, we develop results that help answer questions, and as we accumulate these results, we gain a deeper understanding of the problems. In this way, researchers are much like bricklayers who build a wall brick by brick, continually adding to the wall and, in the process, creating a stronger structure.

How can research specifically add to the knowledge base and existing literature? A research report might provide a study that has not been conducted and thereby fill a void in existing knowledge. It can also provide additional results to confirm or discon- firm results of prior studies. It can help add to the literature about practices that work or advance better practices that educators might try in their educational setting. It can provide information about people and places that have not been previously studied.

Suppose that you decide to research how elementary schoolchildren learn social skills. If you study how children develop social skills and past research has not examined this topic, your research study addresses a gap in knowledge. If your study explores how African American children use social skills on their way home from school, your study might replicate past studies but would test results with new participants at a different research site. If your study examines how children use social skills when at play, not on the school grounds but on the way home from school, the study would contribute to knowledge by expanding our understanding of the topic. If your study examines female children on the way home from school, your study would add female voices seldom heard in the research. If your study has implications for how to teach social skills to students, it has practical value.

Research Improves Practice Research is also important because it suggests improvements for practice. Armed with research results, teachers and other educators become more effective professionals. This effectiveness translates into better learning for kids. For instance, through research, per- sonnel involved in teacher education programs in schools of education know much more about training teachers today than they did 20 years ago. Zeichner (1999) summarized the impact of research on teacher training during this period (see Table 1.1). Teacher trainers today know about the academic capabilities of students, the characteristics of good teacher training programs, the recurring practices in teacher training programs, the need to challenge student beliefs and worldviews, and the tensions teacher educators face in their institutions. However, before these research results can impact teacher training or any other aspect of education, individuals in educational settings need to be aware of results from investigations, to know how to read research studies, to locate useful conclu- sions from them, and to apply the findings to their own unique situations. Educators using research may be teachers in preschool through grade 12, superintendents in school district offices, school psychologists working with children with behavioral problems, or adult educators who teach English as a second language. Research may help these individuals improve their practices on the job.

Research offers practicing educators new ideas to consider as they go about their jobs. From reading research studies, educators can learn about new practices that have been

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tried in other settings or situations. For example, the adult educator working with immi- grants may find that small-group interaction that focuses on using cultural objects from the various homelands may increase the rate at which immigrants learn the English language.

Research also helps practitioners evaluate approaches that they hope will work with individuals in educational settings. This process involves sifting through research to deter- mine which results will be most useful. This process is demonstrated in Figure 1.1, which focuses on three steps that a classroom teacher might use (Connelly, Dukacz, & Quinlan, 1980). As shown in Figure 1.1, a teacher first decides what needs to be implemented in the classroom, then examines alternative lines of research, and finally decides which line of research might help accomplish what needs to be done.

For example, a reading teacher decides to incorporate more information about cul- tural perspectives into the classroom. Research suggests that this may be done with class- room interactions by inviting speakers to the room (line A) or by having the children consider and think (cognitively) about different cultural perspectives by talking with indi- viduals at a local cultural center (line B). It may also be accomplished by having the chil- dren inquire into cultural messages embedded within advertisements (line C) or identify the cultural subject matter of speeches of famous Americans (line D). A line of research is then chosen that helps the teacher accomplish classroom goals. This teacher might be Maria, our teacher conducting research on weapon possession in schools and its potential for violence. Maria hopes to present options for dealing with this issue to her committee and needs to identify useful research lines and consider approaches taken by other schools.

TABLE 1.1

Zeichner’s (1999) Summary of Major Research Results in Teacher Education

Research Conducted What Researchers Have Learned

Surveys about students in teacher education programs

teacher education programs

on teacher education programs

6 PART 1 An Introduction to Educational Research

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At a broader level, research helps the practicing educator build connections with other educators who are trying out similar ideas in different locations. Special education teachers, for example, may establish connections at research conferences where individu- als report on topics of mutual interest, such as using small-group strategies for discipline management in classrooms.

Research Informs Policy Debates In addition to helping educators become better practitioners, research also provides informa- tion to policymakers when they research and debate educational topics. Policymakers may range from federal government employees and state workers to local school board members and administrators, and they discuss and take positions on educational issues important to constituencies. For these individuals, research offers results that can help them weigh various perspectives. When policymakers read research on issues, they are informed about current debates and stances taken by other public officials. To be useful, research needs to have clear results, be summarized in a concise fashion, and include data-based evidence. For example, research useful to policymakers might summarize the alternatives on the following:

● Welfare and its effect on children’s schooling among lower-income families ● School choice and the arguments proposed by opponents and proponents

Several Problems with Research Today Despite the importance of research, we need to realistically evaluate its contributions. Sometimes the results show contradictory or vague findings. An education aide to the Education and Labor Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives for 27 years expressed

FIGURE 1.1 Lines of Research and Your Decision Making

D e c i d e w h a t y o u w a n t t o d o i n y o u r c l a s s r o o m ( e . g . , i n c o r p o r a t e m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t c u l t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t h e c l a s s r o o m ) .

S t e p 2 .

S t e p 1 .

S t e p 3 .

R e s e a r c h L i n e s

A A d v a n t a g e s o f i n v i t e d s p e a k e r s

B I m m e r s i o n i n c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s

C S e n s i t i v i t y t o c u l t u r a l m e s s a g e s

D

F i n d i n g s A F i n d i n g s B F i n d i n g s C F i n d i n g s D

S t u d y s p e c i f i c c u l t u r a l w o r d s , a s f o u n d i n s p e e c h e s

F i n d o u t w h a t r e s e a r c h h a s t o s a y .

D e c i d e w h i c h o f t h e l i n e s o f r e s e a r c h m i g h t h e l p y o u d o t h e t h i n g s y o u w a n t t o d o i n y o u r c l a s s r o o m .

Source: Curriculum Planning for the Classroom

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this confusion: “I read through every single evaluation . . . looking for a hard sentence—a declarative sentence—something that I could put into the legislation, and there were very few” (Viadero, 1999, p. 36). Not only are policymakers looking for a clear “declarative sentence,” but many readers of educational research search for some evidence that makes a direct statement about an educational issue. On balance, however, research accumulates slowly, and what may seem contradictory comes together to make sense in time. Based on the information known, for example, it took more than 4 years to identify the most rudi- mentary factors about how chairpersons help faculty become better researchers (Creswell, Wheeler, Seagren, Egly, & Beyer, 1990).

Another problem with research is the issue of questionable data. The author of a par- ticular research report may not have gathered information from people who are able to understand and address the problem. The number of participants may also be dismally low, which can cause problems in drawing appropriate statistical conclusions. The survey used in a study may contain questions that are ambiguous and vague. At a technical level, the researcher may have chosen an inappropriate statistic for analyzing the data. Just because research is published in a well-known journal does not automatically make it “good” research.

To these issues, we could add unclear statements about the intent of the study, the lack of full disclosure of data collection procedures, or inarticulate statements of the research problem that drives the inquiry. Research has limits, and you need to know how to decipher research studies because researchers may not write them as clearly and accurately as you would like. We cannot erase all “poor” research reported in the educational field. We can, however, as responsible inquirers, seek to reconcile different findings and employ sound procedures to collect and analyze data and to provide clear direction for our own research.

THE SIX STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH

When researchers conduct a study, they proceed through a distinct set of steps. Years ago, these steps were identified as the “scientific method” of inquiry (Kerlinger, 1972; Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). Using a “scientific method,” researchers do the following:

● Identify a problem that defines the goal of research ● Make a prediction that, if confirmed, resolves the problem ● Gather data relevant to this prediction ● Analyze and interpret the data to see if it supports the prediction and resolves the

question that initiated the research

Applied today, these steps provide the foundation for educational research. Although not all studies include predictions, you engage in these steps whenever you undertake a research study. As shown in Figure 1.2, the process of research consists of six steps:

1. Identifying a research problem 2. Reviewing the literature 3. Specifying a purpose for research 4. Collecting data 5. Analyzing and interpreting the data 6. Reporting and evaluating research

Identifying a Research Problem You begin a research study by identifying a topic to study—typically an issue or prob- lem in education that needs to be resolved. Identifying a research problem consists of specifying an issue to study, developing a justification for studying it, and suggesting

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the importance of the study for select audiences that will read the report. By specifying a “problem,” you limit the subject matter and focus attention on a specific aspect of study. Consider the following “problems,” each of which merits research:

● Teens are not learning how to connect to others in their communities. ● Teenage smoking will lead to many premature deaths.

These needs, issues, or controversies arise out of an educational need expressed by teach- ers, schools, policymakers, or researchers, and we refer to them as research problems. You will state them in introductory sections of a research report and provide a rationale for their importance. In a formal sense, these problems are part of a larger written section called the “statement of the problem,” and this section includes the topic, the problem, a justification for the problem, and the importance of studying it for specific audiences, such as teachers, administrators, or researchers.

Let’s examine Maria’s research to see how she will specify her study’s research problem.

Maria plans to study school violence and weapon possession in schools. She starts with a problem: escalating weapon possession among students in high schools. She needs to justify the problem by providing evidence about the importance of this problem and documenting how her study will provide new insight into the problem.

In her research, Marie will need to identify and justify the research problem that she is studying.

Reviewing the Literature It is important to know who has studied the research problem you plan to examine. You may fear that you will initiate and conduct a study that merely replicates prior research. However, faculty and advisers often fear that you will plan a study that does not build on existing knowledge and does not add to the accumulation of findings on a topic. Because of these concerns, reviewing the literature is an important step in the research process.

FIGURE 1.2 The Research Process Cycle

R e p o r t i n g a n d E v a l u a t i n g R e s e a r c h

s e n s i t i v e l y

R e v i e w i n g t h e L i t e r a t u r e

t o s t u d y

q u e s t i o n s o r h y p o t h e s e s

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Reviewing the literature means locating summaries, books, journals, and indexed publications on a topic; selectively choosing which literature to include in your review; and then summarizing the literature in a written report.

The skills required for reviewing the literature develop over time and with practice. You can learn how to locate journal articles and books in an academic library, access computerized databases, choose and evaluate the quality of research on your topic, and summarize it in a review. Library resources can be overwhelming, so having a strategy for searching the literature and writing the review is important. Let’s examine Maria’s approach to reviewing the literature.

To inform her committee about the latest literature on school violence and to plan her own research, Maria needs to conduct a literature review. This process will involve becoming familiar with the university library holdings, spending time reviewing resources and making decisions about what literature to use, and writing a formal summary of the literature on school violence. She consults the library catalog at her university and plans to search the computerized databases.

In order to review the literature, Maria will need to become familiar with the literature and visit her university library.

Specifying a Purpose for Research If your research problem covers a broad topic of concern, you need to focus it so that you can study it. A focused restatement of the problem is the purpose statement. This statement conveys the overall objective or intent of your research. As such, it is the most important statement in your research study. It introduces the entire study, signals the pro- cedures you will use to collect data, and indicates the types of results you hope to find.

The purpose for research consists of identifying the major intent or objective for a study and narrowing it into specific research questions or hypotheses. The purpose state- ment contains the major focus of the study, the participants in the study, and the location or site of the inquiry. This purpose statement is then narrowed to research questions or predictions that you plan to answer in your research study. Let’s check again with Maria to see how she will write a purpose statement and research questions.

Maria now needs to write down the purpose of her study and formulate the ques- tions she will ask of the individuals selected for her study. In draft after draft, she sketches this purpose statement, recognizing that it will provide major direction for her study and help keep her focused on the primary aim of her study. From this broad purpose, Maria now needs to narrow her study to specific questions or state- ments that she would like her participants to answer.

Maria will need to write a good purpose statement and the research questions for her study.

Collecting Data Evidence helps provide answers to your research questions and hypotheses. To get these answers, you engage in the step of collecting or gathering data. Collecting data means identifying and selecting individuals for a study, obtaining their permission to study them, and gathering information by asking people questions or observing their behaviors. Of paramount concern in this process is the need to obtain accurate data from individuals and places. This step will produce a collection of numbers (test scores or frequency of behaviors) or words (responses, opinions, or quotes). Once you identify these individu- als and places, you write method or procedure sections into your research studies. These

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sections offer detailed, technical discussions about the mechanics and administration of data collection. Many decisions, however, go into creating a good data collection proce- dure. Let’s see how Maria will address data collection.

At this point in the research process, Maria needs to think about where she will conduct her study of school violence and weapon possession, who will participate in the study, how she will obtain permission to study them, what data she will collect, and how she will gather the data. She needs to decide whether she will have students fill out forms or talk to them directly to gather data to answer her research questions. Whichever course she chooses, she will need permission from the high school students and, because the students are minors, from their parents.

Maria will engage in the steps of data collection to gather the data she needs to address her research questions.

Analyzing and Interpreting the Data During or immediately after data collection, you need to make sense of the information supplied by individuals in the study. Analysis consists of “taking the data apart” to deter- mine individual responses and then “putting it together” to summarize it. Analyzing and interpreting the data involves drawing conclusions about it; representing it in tables, figures, and pictures to summarize it; and explaining the conclusions in words to provide answers to your research questions. You report analysis and interpretation in sections of a research report usually titled “Results,” “Findings,” or “Discussion.” How will Maria analyze and interpret the data in her research?

If Maria collects information on a written questionnaire from students across the school district, she will need to enter the questionnaire responses into a computer program, choose a statistical procedure, conduct the analyses, report the results in tables, and draw conclusions about (or interpret) whether the data confirm or dis- confirm her expected trends or predictions. If she conducts face-to-face interviews, she will collect audiotapes of students talking about weapon possession at school and transcribe these tapes to obtain a written record. With her transcriptions, she will engage in making sense of student comments by selecting specific sentences and paragraphs and by identifying themes of information. From these themes, she will interpret the meaning of student comments in light of her own personal stance and the suggestions found in past studies.

For help in the data analysis and interpretation phase of her study, Maria will need to analyze her data and make an interpretation to answer her research questions.

Reporting and Evaluating Research After conducting your research, you will develop a written report and distribute it to select audiences (such as fellow teachers, administrators, parents, or students) that can use your information. Reporting research involves deciding on audiences, structur- ing the report in a format acceptable to these audiences, and then writing the report in a manner that is sensitive to all readers. The audiences for research will vary and will include academic researchers who contribute and read journal articles, faculty advisers and committees that review master’s theses and dissertations, and personnel in educational agencies and school districts that look for reports of research on timely topics. Your structure for the research report will vary for each audience, from a formal format for theses and dissertations to a more informal document for in-house

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school reports. In all types of reports, however, researchers need to be respectful and avoid language that discriminates on the basis of gender, sexual orientation, race, or ethnic group.

The audience for your report will have its own standards for judging the quality and utility of the research. Evaluating research involves assessing the quality of a study using standards advanced by individuals in education. Unfortunately, there are no ironclad standards for evaluating educational research in the academic research community, in school districts, or in local, state, or federal agencies. Still, we need some means of determining the quality of studies, especially published research or reports presented to practitioner audiences. Let’s look at how Maria thinks about orga- nizing her research report.

Maria thinks about how she will organize her final report to her school commit- tee and to her university graduate committee. Her graduate committee likely has a structure in mind for her graduate research study, and she needs to consult her faculty adviser about the format that students typically use. She should have a gen- eral idea about what the major sections of the study will be, but the contents of the specific paragraphs and ideas will take shape as her data analysis and interpretation progress.

Her school report will likely be different from her research report. The school report will be informative and concise, will offer recommendations, and will include minimal discussions about methods and procedures. Whatever the audience and structure for her report, it must be respectful of the audience and be devoid of dis- criminatory language.

Maria will need to organize and report her research in ways suitable for different audiences.

✓ Check your understanding in the Pearson etext.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN EACH OF THE SIX STEPS

Conducting educational research is more than engaging in the major steps in the process of research. It also includes designing and writing the research in one of the two major tracks: quantitative research or qualitative research. The way that this unfolds is illustrated in the flow of the research process, as shown in Figure 1.3.

Based on the nature of the research problem and the questions that will be asked to address the problem (and accompanying review of the literature that establishes the importance of the problem), the researcher chooses either the quantitative or the qualita- tive research track. The problem, the questions, and the literature reviews help steer the researcher toward either the quantitative or the qualitative track. These, in turn, inform the specific research design to be used and the procedures involved in them, such as sampling, data collection instruments or protocols, the procedures, the data analysis, and the final interpretation of results.

What are the characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research tracks at each step in this research process? As each characteristic is discussed, it is helpful to first examine two sample journal articles at the end of this chapter because these articles will be cited with illustrations for each characteristic. Marginal notes have been inserted into the articles to identify the specific passage containing the quantitative and qualitative characteristics.

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The first article is quantitative research, whereas the second is qualitative research. These two articles were chosen because they are good representatives of both tracks of research and illustrate within them good procedures of research. They will become a frame of ref- erence for each step in the process of research for the quantitative and qualitative tracks. The two articles are the following:

● Quantitative: Deslandes, R., & Bertrand, R. (2005). Motivation of parent involve- ment in secondary-level schooling. Journal of Educational Research, 98(3), 164–175.

● Qualitative: Shelden, D. L., Angell, M. E., Stoner, J. B., & Roseland, B. D. (2010). School principals’ influence on trust: Perspectives of mothers of children with dis- abilities. Journal of Educational Research, 103, 159–170.

FIGURE 1.3 Flow of the Research Process through Quantitative and Qualitative Research

R e s e a r c h P r o c e s s

R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s

R e s e a r c h P r o b l e m

L i t e r a t u r e R e v i e w

R e s e a r c h D e s i g n s

Q u a n t i t a t i v e R e s e a r c h

S a m p l i n g I n s t r u m e n t s / P r o t o c o l s

D a t a A n a l y s i s

D i s c u s s i o n , C o n c l u s i o n s , L i m i t a t i o n s , F u t u r e R e s e a r c h

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n

Q u a l i t a t i v e R e s e a r c h

Q u a n t i t a t i v e D e s i g n s C o m b i n e d D e s i g n s Q u a l i t a t i v e D e s i g n s

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Quantitative Research Characteristics In quantitative research, the major characteristics are the following:

● Describing a research problem through a description of trends or a need for an ex- planation of the relationship among variables

● Providing a major role for the literature through suggesting the research questions to be asked and justifying the research problem and creating a need for the direction (purpose statement and research questions or hypotheses) of the study

● Creating purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses that are specific, narrow, measurable, and observable

● Collecting numeric data from a large number of people using instruments with preset questions and responses

● Analyzing trends, comparing groups, or relating variables using statistical analysis and interpreting results by comparing them with prior predictions and past research

● Writing the research report using standard, fixed structures and evaluation criteria and taking an objective, unbiased approach

In quantitative research, the investigator identifies a research problem based on trends in the field or on the need to explain why something occurs. Describing a trend means that the research problem can be answered best by a study in which the researcher seeks to establish the overall tendency of responses from individuals and to note how this ten- dency varies among people. For example, you might seek to learn how voters describe their attitudes toward a bond issue. Results from this study can provide information on how a large population views an issue and the diversity of these views.

However, some quantitative research problems require that you explain how one variable affects another. Variables are an attribute (e.g., attitude toward the school bond issue) or characteristic of individuals (e.g., gender) that researchers study. By explaining a relation among variables, you are interested in determining whether one or more variables might influence another variable. For example, quantitative researchers may seek to know why certain voters voted against the school bond issue. The variables—gender and atti- tude toward the quality of the schools—may influence individuals’ vote on the bond issue.

For example, examine the sample quantitative article—the parent involvement study— at the end of this chapter. The authors in the parent involvement study (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005) are less interested in describing the level of parent involvement in secondary- level schooling and more interested in examining the relationship between four factors—parents’ role construction, self-efficacy, perceptions of teacher invitations, and perceptions of adolescent invitations—as predictors of parent involvement at home and at school. To examine this relation, they collect survey data from 770 parents of children in grades 7, 8, and 9 (American system equivalents to Canadian schools). Thus, the problem being addressed is that we know little about what factors relate to parental involvement in secondary-level schooling. Assessing whether certain factors predict an outcome is best suited to quantitative research.

In reviewing the literature in quantitative research, you will typically see a substantial literature review at the beginning of the study. Thus, the literature plays a major role in two ways: justifying the need for the research problem and suggesting potential purposes and research questions for the study. Justifying the research problem means that you use the literature to document the importance of the issue examined in the study. To accom- plish this, you search the literature, locate studies that identify the problem as important to examine, and then cite this literature in the opening sections of a research report.

The literature also creates a need for the study, as expressed specifically in the pur- pose statement and the research questions or hypotheses. You identify in the literature

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key variables, relations, and trends and use these to provide direction for your research questions and hypotheses. A literature review on college students, for example, may show that we know little about the problem of binge drinking. Existing literature, however, may identify the importance of peer groups and styles of interacting among student peer groups. Thus, important research questions might address how peers and their interac- tion styles influence binge drinking on college campuses. In this way, the literature in a quantitative study both documents the need to study the problem and provides direction for the research questions.

In the quantitative parent involvement study (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005), the au- thors cite extensive literature at the beginning of the article. In these paragraphs, the au- thors rely on the model of the parent involvement process, and they discuss the literature surrounding each of the four major factors that are expected to influence parental involve- ment. They begin by reviewing the literature about demographic or personal factors, such as family size and educational level, and then proceed to review the literature about the major factors in the study that they predict will influence parental involvement—parents’ role construction, parents’ self-efficacy, parents’ perceptions of teacher invitations, and parents’ perceptions of student invitations. In this way, the introduction establishes the research that has been reported in the literature on each of the four factors in the study and foreshadows the research questions that will be addressed in the study.

In quantitative research questions, you ask specific, narrow questions to obtain mea- surable and observable data on variables. The major statements and questions of direc- tion in a study—the purpose statement, the research questions, and the hypotheses—are specific and narrow because you identify only a few variables to study. From a study of these variables, you obtain measures or assessments on an instrument or record scores on a scale from observations. For example, in a study of adolescent career choices, the variable—the role of the school counselor—narrows the study to a specific variable from among many variables that might be studied (e.g., role of parents or personal investment by student). To examine the impact of the school counselor on adolescent career choices, data must be obtained from the students.

In the quantitative parent involvement study (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005), the au- thors narrow and select a few factors that they predict will explain parental involvement. They state their purpose of the study and the major research questions. They say that they will examine four factors that influence parental involvement at home and at school and then identify the four factors that they predict will influence this involvement. Thus, their research questions are specific to four factors, and later in the method section, they explain how they will measure these factors.

In quantitative data collection, you use an instrument to measure the variables in the study. An instrument is a tool for measuring, observing, or documenting quantitative data. It contains specific questions and response possibilities that you establish or develop in advance of the study. Examples of instruments are survey questionnaires, standardized tests, and checklists that you might use to observe a student’s or teacher’s behaviors. You administer this instrument to participants and collect data in the form of numbers. For in- stance, you might collect responses based on students checking boxes on a form or from checklists that you complete as you watch a student perform a task in the classroom. The intent of this process is to apply the results (called generalizing the results) from a small number of people to a large number. The larger the number of individuals studied, the stronger the case for applying the results to a large number of people. For example, on a survey sent to 500 parents in a school district, the researcher seeks information about parents’ attitudes toward the educational needs of pregnant teenagers in the schools. The researcher selects an instrument, “Attitudes Toward Education of Pregnant Teenagers,” found through a search of library resources. The 500 parents who receive this instrument

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represent a cross section of people from all socioeconomic levels in the school district. After collecting and analyzing these data, the investigator will draw conclusions about all parents in this school district based on the representative sample studied.

Data collection is also an integral part of the quantitative parent involvement study (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005). The authors study a large number of parents (i.e., 770) of children in grades 7, 8, and 9. They survey parents using an adaptation of the instru- ment, the “Sharing the Dream! Parent Questionnaire,” as well as items on a questionnaire designed by other researchers to assess parents’ perceptions of student invitations. The survey items are translated into French to fit the Quebec context, and they gather quantifi- able data (scores) on the survey. They discuss the scales used to collect the data and how they are scored (i.e., from 1 = disagree very strongly to 6 = agree very strongly).

In quantitative data analysis, you analyze the data using mathematical procedures, called statistics. These analyses consist of breaking down the data into parts to answer the research questions. Statistical procedures such as comparing groups or relating scores for individuals provide information to address the research questions or hypotheses. You then interpret the results of this analysis in light of initial predictions or prior studies. This interpretation is an explanation as to why the results turned out the way they did, and often you will explain how the results either support or refute the expected predictions in the study.

For example, in the parent involvement study (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005), the au- thors collect responses from the parents of secondary-level students who provide scores on the survey instrument. The survey has questions relating to each of the eight factors (or constructs) and the outcome measures, as shown in Table 2. To examine the relation of factors to parental involvement, the researchers do not use all the items on the survey because some were not good measures of the factors. They use a statistical program (i.e., factor analysis) to help them identify the most important questions for each of the four scales composed of items (or factors) in the study. With this reduced set of questions for each of the four factors in the study, they then conduct descriptive analysis (i.e., means and standard deviations, as shown in Table 3) and use the statistical program of regression statistical analysis to predict whether the control or personal items or four predictors best explain the variation in scores for parent involvement. From Tables 4 and 5, we see what variables best explain the variation for each grade level (7, 8, and 9) and for the two out- come measures of parent involvement at home and parent involvement at school. In short, the authors use statistical analysis consisting of three phases: factor analysis, descriptive analysis, and regression analysis. The ultimate goal was to relate variables to see what predictors (demographics or the four factors) best explain parental involvement. Then, in the implication section of the article, the authors discuss the main results of the study and compare their results with those found in other studies in the literature.

In reporting and evaluating quantitative research, the overall format for a study fol- lows a predictable pattern: introduction, review of the literature, methods, results, and discussion. This form creates a standardized structure for quantitative studies. In addition, it also leads to specific criteria that you might use to judge the quality of a quantitative re- search report. For example, you examine a quantitative study to see if it has an extensive literature review; tests good research questions and hypotheses; uses rigorous, impartial data collection procedures; applies appropriate statistical procedures; and forms interpre- tations that naturally follow from the data.

In quantitative research, you also use procedures to ensure that your own personal biases and values do not influence the results. You use instruments that have proven value and that have reliable and valid scores from past uses. You design studies to control for all variables that might introduce bias into a study. Finally, you report research without referring to yourself or your personal reaction.

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In the quantitative parent involvement study (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005), the au- thors subdivide the research into standard sections typically found in quantitative studies. The study begins with an introduction that includes the literature review, purpose state- ment, and research questions; the methods; the results; the discussion; and, finally, the implications and limitations. The entire study conveys an impersonal, objective tone, and they do not bring either their biases or their personal opinions into the study. They use proven instruments to measure variables and employ multiple statistical procedures to build objectivity into the study.

Qualitative Research Characteristics In qualitative research, we see different major characteristics at each stage of the re- search process:

● Exploring a problem and developing a detailed understanding of a central phenomenon

● Having the literature review play a minor role but justify the problem ● Stating the purpose and research questions in an open-ended way to capture the

participants’ experiences ● Collecting data based on words (e.g., from interviews) or from images (e.g., pho-

tographs) from a small number of individuals so that the participants’ views are obtained

● Analyzing the data for description and themes using text analysis and interpreting the larger meaning of the findings

● Writing the report using flexible, emerging structures and evaluative criteria and in- cluding the researchers’ subjective reflexivity and bias

Qualitative research is best suited to address a research problem in which you do not know the variables and need to explore. The literature might yield little information about the phenomenon of study, and you need to learn more from participants through exploration. For example, the literature may not adequately address the use of sign lan- guage in distance education courses. A qualitative research study is needed to explore this phenomenon from the perspective of distance education students. Unquestionably, using sign language in such courses is complex and may not have been examined in the prior literature. A central phenomenon is the key concept, idea, or process studied in qualitative research. Thus, the research problem of the difficulty in teaching children who are deaf requires both an exploration (because we need to better know how to teach these children) and an understanding (because of its complexity) of the process of teach- ing and learning.

The authors in the sample article on mothers’ trust in school principals (Shelden et al., 2010) build a case for the importance of trust in the opening passages of the article. They suggest that it is an important issue and that it has a positive effect on student outcomes. They then narrow the discussion to trust of school leaders and then to parents of children with disabilities and finally to the relationships between home and school partnerships for students with disabilities. They point out the problem of possible discrepant viewpoints between parents and schools—a potential problem that needs to be addressed. They then discuss the need for exploring further the critical role of principals in establishing trust in the relationships between families of children with disabilities and education profes- sionals. In sum, they open the article by discussing the important central phenomenon of trust and exploring the potential discrepant viewpoints between mothers of individuals with disabilities and principals. They say that they view trust as the “central phenomenon requiring exploration and understanding” (p. 161).

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In qualitative research, the literature review plays a less substantial role at the begin- ning of the study than in quantitative research. In qualitative research, although you may review the literature to justify the need to study the research problem, the literature does not provide major direction for the research questions. The reason for this is that qualita- tive research relies more on the views of participants in the study and less on the direc- tion identified in the literature by the researcher. Thus, to use the literature to foreshadow or specify the direction for the study is inconsistent with the qualitative approach of learning from participants. For example, one qualitative researcher who studied bullying in the schools cited several studies at the beginning of the research to provide evidence for the problem but did not use the literature to specify the research questions. Instead, this researcher attempted to answer in the research the most general, open question possible—“What is bullying?”—and to learn how students constructed their view of this experience.

In the illustrative sample qualitative study by Shelden et al. (2010), the authors begin the article by citing numerous studies from the literature. This literature review is not to identify specific questions that need to be answered; instead, the literature review estab- lishes the meaning and importance of the central phenomenon of trust—why it is impor- tant and the relationships needed in schools that involve parents and educational teams, including principals. In this article, there is no separate literature review section, and the literature is used to justify the importance of studying the potential problem of the rela- tionships between parents (i.e., mothers) and the schools (i.e., principals).

In qualitative research, the purpose statement and the research questions are stated so that you can best learn from participants. You research a single phenomenon of interest and state this phenomenon in a purpose statement. A qualitative study that examines the “professionalism” of teachers, for example, asks high school teachers, “What does it mean to be a professional?” This question focuses on understanding a single idea—being a professional—and the responses to it will yield qualitative data, such as quotations.

In the qualitative study of mothers’ trust in school principals (Shelden et al., 2010), the authors say that the study emerged from a broader study of the perspectives of mothers of children with disabilities on trust in education personnel. The authors raise this ques- tion: “What are the perspectives of mothers of children with disabilities on trust in school principals?” (p. 161). This is a general and broad question that seeks to understand (or “gain insight into,” p. 161) the perspectives of the mothers.

In qualitative research, you collect data to learn from the participants in the study and develop forms, called protocols, for recording data as the study proceeds. These forms pose general questions so that the participants can provide answers to the questions. Often questions on these forms will change and emerge during data collection. Examples of these forms include an interview protocol, which consists of four or five questions, or an observational protocol, in which the researcher records notes about the behavior of participants. Moreover, you gather text (word) or image (picture) data. Transcribed audio recordings form a database composed of words. Observing participants in their work or family setting, you take notes that will become a qualitative database. When researchers ask young children to write their thoughts in a diary, these diary entries, too, become a text database. With each form of data, you will gather as much information as possible to collect detailed accounts for a final research report.

In our sample qualitative study by Shelden et al. (2010), the authors recruited a sample of mothers of school-age children with disabilities and conducted interviews with 16 of these parents. In the journal article, the authors provide the eight open-ended ques- tions that they asked. These interviews enabled them to probe for further information, elaboration, and clarification of responses while maintaining a “feeling of openness” to the participants’ responses.

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In qualitative research, typically you gather a text database, so the data analysis of text consists of dividing it into groups of sentences, called text segments, and determin- ing the meaning of each group of sentences. Rather than using statistics, you analyze words or pictures to describe the central phenomenon under study. The result may be a description of individual people or places. In some qualitative studies, the entire report is mostly a long description of several individuals. The result may also include themes or broad categories that represent your findings. In qualitative studies in which you both describe individuals and identify themes, a rich, complex picture emerges. From this complex picture, you make an interpretation of the meaning of the data by reflecting on how the findings relate to existing research, by stating a personal reflection about the significance of the lessons learned during the study, or by drawing out larger, more abstract meanings.

In the study of mothers’ perspectives of trust in school principals (Shelden et al., 2010), we can see these data analysis steps. The authors analyzed text data based on audiotaped and transcribed verbatim passages as mentioned in the section on inter- views. In their section on data analysis, they talk about the “line-by-line coding” of their data in which they used the words of the participants to form categories. They pro- vide in Table 1 a detailed descriptive portrait of participants in their study, noting the ethnicity, type of disability, grade level, and other personal information. In the results section, we find the various themes that they identified, such as principal attributes and principal actions. In the conclusion section, they review all of these findings, thereby creating a complex picture of the relationship between mothers and school leaders. Although their personal reflections are minimal in this study, the authors discuss their challenges in recruiting participants to the study and how they sought to protect the identity of the participants.

In reporting qualitative research, you employ a wide range of formats to report your studies. Although the overall general form follows the standard steps in the process of re- search, the sequence of these “parts” of research tends to vary from one qualitative report to another. A study may begin with a long, personal narrative told in story form or with a more objective, scientific report that resembles quantitative research. With such variability, it is not surprising that the standards for evaluating qualitative research also are flexible. Good qualitative reports, however, need to be realistic and persuasive to convince the reader that the study is an accurate and credible account. Qualitative reports typically con- tain extensive data collection to convey the complexity of the phenomenon or process. The data analysis reflects description and themes as well as the interrelation of themes. In addition, you discuss your role or position in a research study, called being reflexive. This means that you reflect on your own biases, values, and assumptions and actively write them into the research. This may also involve discussing personal experiences and identifying how you collaborated with participants during phases of the project. You may also discuss how your experiences and cultural backgrounds (e.g., Asian American per- spectives) affect the interpretations and conclusions drawn in the study.

In the sample study of mothers’ trust in school principals (Shelden et al., 2010), the authors used more of a scientific structure than a literary structure for writing their article. This may have been done because of the requirements of the journal to address certain as- pects (e.g., methods, results, and discussion). However, the article did depart from the tra- ditional structure by not having a separate literature review section; instead, the literature review was incorporated into the introduction to establish the importance of the central phenomenon—trust—and to develop a need for the study. The authors did employ the personal pronoun “we” in referring to themselves in the study, a subjective orientation typically associated with qualitative, literary writing. As mentioned earlier, references to themselves and especially how their backgrounds shaped their interpretation were absent.

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Similarities and Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research At this point, you may be asking how quantitative research and qualitative research are similar and different. In terms of similarity, both forms of research follow the six steps in the process of research. There are minor differences as well in the introduction to a study—the research problem section—in that both sections need to establish the impor- tance of the problem. In quantitative research, the research problem section is used to direct the types of questions or hypotheses asked in the study, whereas in qualitative research, the research problem discussion is typically used to establish the importance of the central idea. These differences are apparent in the comparison of the introduction to the quantitative parent involvement study (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005) and the qualita- tive mothers’ trust in school principals study (Shelden et al., 2010).

Another similarity exists in the data collection procedures. Both quantitative and qualitative data collection may employ similar approaches, such as interviews or observa- tions. However, quantitative approaches use more closed-ended approaches in which the researcher identifies set response categories (e.g., strongly agree, strongly disagree, and so forth), whereas qualitative approaches use more open-ended approaches in which the inquirer asks general questions of participants and the participants shape the response possibilities (e.g., in an interview with a teacher, a qualitative researcher might ask, “What does professional development mean to you?”).

There are distinct differences that go beyond the forms of gathering data. In data anal- ysis, the procedures are quite different. In quantitative research, the investigator relies on statistical analysis (mathematical analysis) of the data, which is typically in numeric form. In qualitative research, statistics are not used to analyze the data; instead, the inquirer analyzes words (e.g., transcriptions from interviews) or images (e.g., photographs). Rather than relying on statistical procedures, the qualitative researcher analyzes the words to group them into larger meanings of understanding, such as codes, categories, or themes. The reporting formats are also typically different, with the quantitative structure following the typical introduction, literature review, methods, results, and conclusion sections. In qualitative research, some of these sections may be missing, as in the literature review in the Shelden et al. (2010) study, and the format may be more of a literary opening with a personal vignette or passage, an unfolding story, the use of extensive quotes from par- ticipants, and personal reflections from the researcher.

It should also be mentioned that rather than viewing quantitative and qualitative as two end points in a dichotomy, they should be viewed as different points on a con- tinuum. Studies may contain some elements of the characteristics of quantitative research and some elements of qualitative research. However, studies do tend to lean toward one approach or the other, and knowing the characteristics associated with each type of re- search enables a researcher to assess whether a particular study favors either quantitative or qualitative research.

How do you choose whether to use a quantitative or a qualitative approach? Three factors are important. First, match your approach to your research problem. Remember that the problems best suited for quantitative research are those in which trends or ex- planations need to be made. For qualitative research, the problems need to be explored to obtain a deep understanding. Second, your approach needs to fit the audience(s) for the research report. Educators write for several audiences, such as policymakers, faculty and graduate committees, editors and review boards, evaluators of grant proposals, and individuals in schools or educational settings. It is important that the audience(s) be familiar with the approach used in a study. Third, relate your approach to your personal experience and training. A quantitative researcher typically has taken some courses or

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training in measurement, statistics, and quantitative data collection, such as experiments, correlational designs, or survey techniques. Qualitative researchers need experience in field studies in which they practice gathering information in a setting and learning the skills of observing or interviewing individuals. Course work or experience in analyzing text data is helpful, as is experience in research designs, including grounded theory, ethnography, or narrative research. Some individuals have experience and training in approaches to research that combine both quantitative and qualitative methods, such as mixed methods research or action research.

Research Designs Associated with Quantitative and Qualitative Research It is not enough to know the steps in the process of research and that quantitative and qualitative procedures differ at each step. This text will also go into detailed procedures involved in quantitative, qualitative, and combined research. Research designs are the specific procedures involved in the research process: data collection, data analysis, and report writing. Figure 1.4 illustrates how the steps in the research process relate to quan- titative and qualitative research and advances eight different research designs, used by educational researchers, discussed in this book.

Experimental Designs Some quantitative researchers seek to test whether an educational practice or idea makes a difference for individuals. Experimental research procedures are ideally suited for this study. Experimental designs (also called intervention studies or group comparison studies) are procedures in quantitative research in which the investigator determines whether an activity or materials make a difference in results for participants. You assess this impact by giving one group one set of activities (called an intervention) and withholding the set from another group.

FIGURE 1.4 Types of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Designs and Their Primary Uses

Quantitative Research Designs

Qualitative Research Designs

Combined Quantitative/Qualitative

Research Designs

Intervention Research

Non- Intervention Research

Describing trends for a population of people

Exploring the shared culture of a group of people

Exploring individual stories to describe the lives of people

Combining quantitative and qualitative data to best understand and explain a research problem

Using quantitative and qualitative data for individuals to study education problems that they face in their settings

Experimental Research

Correlational Research

Survey Research

Ethnographic Research

Grounded Theory Research

Narrative Research

Mixed Method Research

Action Research

Explaining whether an intervention influences an outcome for one group as opposed to another group

Associating or relating variables in a predictable pattern for one group of individuals

Exploring common experiences of individuals to develop a theory

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Correlational Designs In some studies, you may be unable to provide an intervention or to assign individuals to groups. Moreover, you focus more on examining the association or relation of one or more variables than in testing the impact of activities or materials. Correlational designs are procedures in quantitative research in which investigators measure the degree of asso- ciation (or relation) between two or more variables using the statistical procedure of cor- relational analysis. This degree of association, expressed as a number, indicates whether the two variables are related or whether one can predict another. To accomplish this, you study a single group of individuals rather than two or more groups, as in an experiment.

Survey Designs In another form of quantitative research, you may not want to test an activity or materials or may not be interested in the association among variables. Instead, you seek to describe trends in a large population of individuals. In this case, a survey is a good procedure to use. Survey designs are procedures in quantitative research in which you administer a survey or questionnaire to a small group of people (called the sample) to identify trends in attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a large group of people (called the population).

Grounded Theory Designs Instead of studying a single group, you might examine a number of individuals all of whom have experienced an action, interaction, or process. Grounded theory designs are systematic, qualitative procedures that researchers use to generate a general explanation (grounded in the views of participants, called a grounded theory) that explains a process, action, or interaction among people. The procedures for developing this theory include primarily collecting interview data, developing and relating categories (or themes) of information, and composing a figure or visual model that portrays the general explanation. In this way, the explanation is “grounded” in the data from participants. From this explana- tion, you construct predictive statements about the experiences of individuals.

Ethnographic Designs You may be interested in studying one group of individuals, in examining them in the setting where they live and work, and in developing a portrait of how they interact. An ethnographic study is well suited for this purpose. Ethnographic designs are qualitative procedures for describing, analyzing, and interpreting a cultural group’s shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language that develop over time. In ethnography, the researcher provides a detailed picture of the culture-sharing group, drawing on various sources of in- formation. The ethnographer also describes the group within its setting, explores themes or issues that develop over time as the group interacts, and details a portrait of the group.

Narrative Research Designs You may not be interested in describing and interpreting group behavior or ideas or in developing an explanation grounded in the experiences of many individuals. Instead, you wish to tell the stories of one or two individuals. Narrative research designs are qualitative procedures in which researchers describe the lives of individuals, collect and tell stories about these individuals’ lives, and write narratives about their experiences. In education, these stories often relate to school classroom experiences or activities in schools.

Mixed Methods Designs You decide to collect both quantitative data (i.e., quantifiable data) and qualitative data (i.e., text or images). The core argument for a mixed methods design is that the combination

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of both forms of data provides a better understanding of a research problem than either quantitative or qualitative data alone. Mixed methods designs are procedures for collecting, analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or in a multi- phase series of studies. In this process, you need to decide on the intent of your study (why “mixing” is important), the emphasis you will give to each form of data (priority), which form of data you will collect first (concurrent or sequential), how you will “mix” the data (integrate, connect, or embed), and whether you will use theory to guide the study (e.g., advocacy or social science theory).

Action Research Designs Like mixed methods research, action research designs often utilize both quantitative and qualitative data, but they focus more on procedures useful in addressing practical problems in schools and the classrooms. Action research designs are systematic procedures used by teachers (or other individuals in an educational setting) to gather quantitative and quali- tative data to address improvements in their educational setting, their teaching, and the learning of their students. In some action research designs, you seek to address and solve local, practical problems, such as a classroom-discipline issue for a teacher. In other studies, your objective might be to empower, transform, and emancipate individuals in educational settings.

IMPORTANT ETHICAL ISSUES IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH

Respect for audiences and the use of nondiscriminatory language are ethical issues that Maria must observe. Like Maria, all educational researchers need to be aware of and anticipate ethical issues in their research. Such a need stems from the research horrors of treatment of individuals in Nazi Germany and the inappropriate Tuskegee syphilis stud- ies (Mark & Gamble, 2009). From these and other violations of treatment of participants developed federal guidelines for conducting research as announced in the 1978 National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects on Biomedical and Behavioral Re- search and its Belmont Report (Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1978). The three basic principles of this Report involve the beneficence of treatment of participants (maximizing good outcomes and minimizing risk), respect for participants (protecting autonomy and ensuring well-informed, voluntary participation), and justice (a fair distri- bution of risk and benefits).

Institutional Review Boards Campus offices developed to monitor adherence to these three principles, and offices of institutional review boards emerged. Federal funds could be withheld from campuses if research conducted on those campuses did not protect the treatment of participants. Accordingly, on campuses that receive federal funds, educational researchers need to learn about the procedures involved in applying for approval from their institutional review board offices and follow guidelines in developing applications for approval and in design- ing consent forms for participants to complete that guarantee their protection.

Professional Associations Ethical standards are also available from professional associations. Examples of profes- sional associations that offer helpful guidelines include the American Educational Research

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Association (2011), the American Psychological Association (2010a), the American Anthro- pological Association (2012), and the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evalu- ation (Yarbrough, Shulha, Hopson, & Caruthers, 2011).

According to these guidelines, individuals who participate in a study have certain rights. Before participating in research, individuals need to know the purpose and aims of the study, how the results will be used, and the likely social consequences the study will have on their lives. They also have the right to refuse to participate in a study and to withdraw at any time. When they participate and provide information, their anonymity is protected and guaranteed by the researcher. Individuals are not to be offered excessive financial inducements to participate in a project. Participants also have the right to gain something from a study. Researchers need to actively look for ways to “give back” (or recip- rocate) to participants in a study because the participants have freely provided their time. For example, in one study involving individuals with HIV, the author shared book royalties with the participants in the study. In another study, a researcher volunteered to help super- vise lunchroom activities in exchange for information from students in the school.

Ethical Practices throughout the Research Process In all steps of the research process, you need to engage in ethical practices. Practicing ethics is a complex matter that involves much more than merely following a set of static guidelines such as those from professional associations or conforming to guidelines from campus institutional review boards. Ethics has become a more pervasive idea stretching from the origins of a research study to its final completion and distribution. Ethics should be a primary consideration rather than an afterthought and should be at the forefront of the researcher’s agenda (Hesse-Bieber & Leavy, 2006). Of all the steps in the research process, it does tend to relate more closely to the data collection and reporting and dis- tribution of reports than to any of the other phases of research. Some of these issues are mentioned here.

Some Ethical Issues in Data Collection It is important to respect the site in which the research takes place. This respect should be shown by gaining permission before entering a site, by disturbing the site as little as possible during a study, and by viewing oneself as a “guest” at the place of study. Lincoln Public Schools (n.d.) in Lincoln, Nebraska, provides illustrative guidelines to follow for conducting research with minimal disruption to a school district. Their guidelines list several reasons why a project may not be approved. Disapproved projects are those that take away considerable amounts of instructional time; require large amounts of teacher, administrator, or office time (the district may ask to be reimbursed for the costs of compil- ing information, staff time, or materials); interfere with district data collection or the work of current research projects; are planned for the first or last month of the school year; or are received too late in the year to be adequately reviewed.

Another strategy for respecting the research site with minimal disruption is to gain access through gatekeepers (or officials). Researchers may need to consult with different gatekeepers at multiple levels in an organization. For example, in a study in one high school classroom, the researcher sought permission from several individuals, including the school board responsible for ensuring that the rights of human participants were protected, the research official in the school district, the principal of the school, the teacher in a government class, and the actual students who participated in the study and their parents.

Other ethical issues arise in data collection and are associated with specific types of research designs. You need to not purposefully deprive some participants of helpful

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treatments, only publish positive results, or fail to disclose the purpose of the study to participants. It is helpful to involve stakeholders in assessing risk to participants and to not pressure participants into signing consent forms (S. Levy, personal communication, May 3, 2010), to not engage in practices that create power imbalances, and to respect norms of indigenous cultures (Lincoln, 2009).

Some Ethical Issues in Data Reporting You need to show respect to audiences who read and use information from studies. Data should be reported honestly, without changing or altering the findings to satisfy certain predictions or interest groups. It may, however, be appropriate for the primary investigator to provide those at the research site with a preliminary copy of any publi- cations. In addition, studies completed by others should not be plagiarized, and credit should be given for material quoted from other studies. This credit involves citing the authors and the date of the publication and listing the publication in the reference sec- tion of the study. In addition, research should be free of jargon and be understandable to those being studied. As ethical educators, we need to make every effort to commu- nicate the practical significance of our research to the community of researchers and practitioners so that inquiry will be encouraged and used. Educational researchers have an ethical mandate to produce research that is of high quality and to report their results that convey the basic assumptions they are making. This also means that research should not sit unpublished and that researchers should openly share their findings (Brown & Hedges, 2009). Results should be published and disseminated even though they may present findings contrary to accepted standards (S. Levy, personal communi- cation, May 3, 2010).

SKILLS NEEDED TO DESIGN AND CONDUCT RESEARCH

As a new researcher, you may wonder whether you have the ability to read, evaluate, and actually conduct research. Knowing the process of research, you may say, does not guarantee an adequate research study. Certainly, Maria, who is new to research, has these concerns.

Let me set your mind at ease. You have already learned valuable research skills through your life experiences. These skills include solving puzzles, employing a long at- tention span, using a library, and, of course, writing out your thoughts.

Solving Puzzles Researchers look at problems as puzzles to solve. The steps in the research process are viewed as a series of puzzle pieces that the inquirer assembles. You already have skills in solving puzzles. You fit together the debits and credits to balance your checkbook. As a parent (or prospective parent), you engage in multiple roles during the day that require juggling of different tasks. These are puzzles that we work out by breaking them down into manageable parts (“What will be the demands on my time today?”), setting obtain- able objectives (“I will have a busy day at work, so I will focus on my job today”), and possibly writing them down (“I need to make a list of what I must accomplish today”). As you examine research studies or engage in the process of inquiry, assembling these parts of the puzzle—such as first working on a research problem and then specifying a purpose for a study—will require that all of the pieces fit together, as with the many puzzles that we solve in daily living.

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Lengthening Your Attention Span Although we generally make time to complete the tasks we love, our attention span cer- tainly varies from task to task. The process of research involves six steps that may span a period of 6 months or more. For example, reading through a journal article and identifying each of these steps requires patience as well as knowledge about what to look for. All of us bring attention spans of varying lengths to the process of research, but if we consider the tasks we love and the amount of time we devote to them, we can see that we have already developed an attention span long enough to spend considerable time at research.

Learning to Use Library Resources The step in the research process that requires you to review the literature means spending time in an academic library. For most of us, going to the library probably began in grade school with trips to the school library. Engaging in research requires spending time with library resources, a process that is facilitated by home computers and Internet connections to library catalogs. However, the process of research requires that you use skills in locating studies, summarizing them, and writing a review of the literature. These skills are developed during research, if you do not already have them. They develop from our comfort level with a library and with experiences that began early in our schooling and continue today.

Writing, Editing, and More Writing Researchers cannot escape the ever-present aspect of writing as a key facet of research. As writers, we work through numerous drafts, receive reactions from others, and develop new drafts. Research involves writing the study for an audience. Do you enjoy writing and com- municating your thoughts? Do you like to write in a journal or a diary? Do you get satisfac- tion from completing projects? You have probably written several essays in college already or worked on a research report with other students or a faculty member. In short, you have experience in writing. As you know, writing is more than recording ideas on paper or in a computer file. It is also organizing ideas, preparing interview questions, jotting down notes during an observation, and writing for permission to use someone else’s questions or articles. Writing exists in all phases of the creative process of planning and in conducting research.

✓ Check your understanding in the Pearson etext.

KEY IDEAS IN THE CHAPTER The Definition and Importance of Educational Research Research involves asking a question, collecting data, and analyzing data to determine the answer to the question. It helps educators understand problems or issues through the accu- mulation of knowledge. It can assist educators in improving practice, and it focuses attention on important policy issues being discussed and debated by decision makers. In addition, engaging in research provides valuable conceptual writing and presenting skills for students.

The Six Steps in the Process of Research Six steps are followed when conducting a research study. The study begins with iden- tifying a research problem or issue of study. It then consists of reviewing the literature, advancing direction through research questions and statements, and collecting, analyzing, and interpreting the data. This process culminates in a research report presented, evalu- ated, and potentially used by the educational community.

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The Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Research In quantitative research, the major characteristics are describing a research problem through a description of trends or a need for an explanation of the relationship among variables; providing a major role for the literature through suggesting the research ques- tions to be asked and justifying the research problem and creating a need for the direction (purpose statement and research questions or hypotheses) of the study; creating purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses that are specific, narrow, measurable, and observable; collecting numeric data from a large number of people using instruments with preset questions and responses; analyzing trends, comparing groups, or relating variables using statistical analysis and interpreting results by comparing them with prior predictions and past research; and writing the research report using standard, fixed struc- tures and evaluation criteria and taking an objective, unbiased approach.

In qualitative research, we see different major characteristics at each stage of the re- search process: exploring a problem and developing a detailed understanding of a central phenomenon; having the literature review play a minor role but justify the problem; stat- ing the purpose and research questions in a general and broad way so as to include the participants’ experiences; collecting data based on words or images from a small number of individuals so that the participants’ views are obtained; analyzing the data for descrip- tion and themes using text analysis and interpreting the larger meaning of the findings; writing the report using flexible, emerging structures and evaluative criteria; and including the researchers’ subjective reflexivity and bias.

Although quantitative and qualitative characteristics need to be seen as points on a continuum rather than opposites, the choice of research between the two is based on matching the approach to a research problem, fitting the approach to your audience, and relating the approach to your experiences.

The Types of Research Designs Associated with Quantitative and Qualitative Research Researchers tend to employ specific procedures for data collection, analysis, and report writing in the quantitative and qualitative approaches. This text emphasizes eight research designs: experimental, correlational, survey, grounded theory, ethnographic, narrative, mixed methods, and action research designs.

The Important Ethical Issues A need for attention to ethical issues arose out of the inhumane treatment of participants in past years. As a result, the federal government issued legislation and reports governing good ethical practices. These guidelines have been supplemented by professional orga- nizational reports. As a result, educational researchers need to anticipate ethical issues throughout the research process, but they are especially important during data collection and in writing and disseminating reports.

The Skills Needed to Design and Conduct Research Research often mirrors the practices found in everyday life, such as solving puzzles, focus- ing attention on topics, and practicing good writing and editing. It also involves learning how to use the academic library and to locate useful literature for a study.

CHAPTER 1 The Process of Conducting Research Using Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches 27

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USEFUL INFORMATION FOR PRODUCERS OF RESEARCH ● As you plan and conduct a study, keep in mind that research needs to be valuable

to educators. Include comments in your study that convey the value to specific educational audiences.

● Use the general framework of the six steps for thinking about your plans and the conduct of research. These six steps make research manageable, help ensure that you conduct thorough inquiries, and provide a useful strategy for the design and writing of the research.

● As you plan and conduct a study, discuss specifically the characteristics of the quan- titative and qualitative approach you are using.

● Recognize that research is neither all quantitative nor all qualitative but tends to- ward one or the other (on a continuum).

● Be ethical in conducting research. Respect the rights of participants, research sites, and individuals who will be readers of your study.

● Consider the skills that you need to develop to be a researcher. You may already have developed the skills of reading and writing, using library resources, solving puzzles, and focusing in on a topic of interest.

USEFUL INFORMATION FOR CONSUMERS OF RESEARCH ● As you examine a study, recognize that authors emphasize different reasons for un-

dertaking their study. Look for suggestions by the author for practical applications of a study.

● Recognize that researchers proceed through a process of research and then con- struct sections of a study that reflect different steps in this process. For the research problem, examine the “introduction” to a study; for the literature review, explore the “literature review” section. For the data collection discussion, visit the “method” or “procedure” section, and for the data analysis and interpretation, see the “results” or “findings” as well as the “discussion” sections.

● Expect that a quantitative study and a qualitative study will not look the same be- cause they differ in many of the steps of the research process. At the same time, they adhere to the same general steps of the overall research process.

● Look for statements in the study where the researcher discusses ethical issues that arose in the study and how they were addressed.

UNDERSTANDING CONCEPTS AND EVALUATING RESEARCH STUDIES You can test your knowledge of the content of this chapter by answering the following ques- tions that relate to the parent involvement study and the mothers’ trust in school principals study. In the Pearson etext, click here to answer the questions and receive instant feedback. 1. What preconceptions do you bring to the study of research? List three advantages and

three disadvantages of conducting research. 2. Assume that you are Maria in the introductory scenario in this chapter. List three steps

that you might take to begin your research study. 3. How would the parent involvement study (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005) be different if

you presented it as a qualitative study? How would the mothers’ trust in school princi- pals study (Shelden et al., 2010) be different if you presented it as a quantitative study?

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Reading Research: A Quantitative Study

In the Pearson etext, click here to answer questions about the study. When you submit your answers, you’ll receive expert feedback.

Motivation of Parent Involvement in Secondary-Level Schooling

Rollande Deslandes Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Canada Richard Bertrand Université Laval, Quebec, Canada

Abstract Inspired by K. V. Hoover-Dempsey and H. M. Sandler’s (1995, 1997) model of the parent involve- ment process, the authors examined 4 psychological constructs of parent involvement: (a) relative strength of parents’ role construction, (b) parents’ self-efficacy for helping adolescents succeed in school, (c) parents’ perceptions of teacher invitations to become involved, and (d) parents’ per- ceptions of students’ invitations to become involved. The authors obtained survey responses from 770 parents of adolescents in 5 Quebec secondary schools—354 parents of 7th graders, 231 parents of 8th graders, and 185 parents of 9th graders. Results emphasize that it is important that researchers distinguish parent involvement at home and at school when examining the predictive power of the 4 psychological constructs. Findings also provide evidence of grade-level differences in the predictive models of parent involvement at home and at school. Parents’ perceptions of students’ invitations was the most powerful predictor of parent involvement at home models across the 3 grade levels. Parents’ role construction made important contributions to the prediction of their involvement at Grades 7 and 9; parents’ perceptions of teacher invitations were associated with parent involvement at school across the 3 grade levels. Whether at home or at school, parents became involved if they perceived that teachers and students expected or desired their involvement. Key words: parent involvement, parent motivation, secondary schools

In past decades, a wealth of studies showed that parent involvement is essential in children’s educational process and outcomes (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Parent involvement refers to parents’ roles in educating their children at home and in school (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001). Involvement can take different forms, including discussions about school, help with homework, or volunteering at school. Parent involvement appears to have lasting benefits even through high school. When parents are involved, secondary students tend to earn higher grades (Deslandes, Royer, Turcotte, & Bertrand, 1997; Dornbusch & Ritter, 1988; Lee, 1994; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992), show higher aspirations (Trusty, 1996), and have fewer disciplinary problems (Deslandes & Royer, 1997; Eccles, Early, Frasier, Belansky, & McCarthy, 1997).

Even though the benefits associated with parent involvement at the secondary level seem to be well understood, educators still know little about what factors lead parents to decide to become involved in their adolescents’ schooling. In the present study, we explored how the psychological constructs, as defined in Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler’s model (1995, 1997), influence the parent involvement process at the secondary level, and more precisely, at the first three grade levels in Quebec secondary schools. We addressed the following research question: What are the relative contributions of parents’ (a) role construction, (b) self-efficacy, (c) perception of teacher invitations, and (d) perception of adolescent invitations to predict parent involvement at home and at school in

(01)

(02)

Quantitative Characteristics in Marginal Annotations

Copyright of Journal of Educational Research is the property of Heldref Publications and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permis- sion. However, users may print, download, or e-mail articles for individual use.

Address correspondence to Rollande Deslandes, Education Department, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, C. P. 500, Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, G9A 5H7. (E-mail: Rollande_Deslandes@uqtr.ca)

Deslandes, R., & Bertrand, R. (2005). Motivation of parent involvement in secondary-level schooling. Journal of Educational Research, 98(33), 164–175; reprinted by permission of the publisher (Taylor & Francis Ltd, http:// www.tandf.co.uk/journals).

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CHAPTER 1 The Process of Conducting Research Using Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches 29

Grades 7, 8, and 9? (Because the invitation for parents to become involved is presented by teachers and students, we considered, as did Walker, Hoover-Dempsey, Reed, and Jones [2000], teacher in- vitations and student invitations as two different constructs, thus leading to four psychological con- structs related to parent involvement.) Previous research on the evolution of adolescents’ autonomy and parent involvement in secondary schools led us to expect some differences across grade levels in the predictive models of parent involvement at home and at school (Deslandes, 2003).

Influences on Parent Involvement Jordan, Orozco, and Averett (2001) identified factors that influence levels and aspects of parent in- volvement. Family (e.g., education level, family structure, family size, parent gender, work outside the home) and child characteristics (e.g., age, gender, grade level, academic performance) are of particular relevance in this study. Research has shown that undereducated parents and single par- ents are less involved in certain types of involvement activities. For instance, Deslandes, Potvin, and Leclerc (1999) found that adolescents from traditional families and well-educated parents report more affective support (parent encouragement and praise, help with homework, frequent discus- sions about school, and attendance at school performances or sports events) than do adolescents from nontraditional families and less educated parents. Astone and McLanahan (1991) also indicated that adolescents who live with single parents or stepparents report that their homework is monitored less than the homework of adolescents from traditional families. Deslandes and Cloutier (2000) reported that mothers are more involved with homework than are fathers. Dauber and Epstein (1989) argued that well-educated parents and those who do not work outside the home (Eccles & Harold, 1996) are more likely to be involved at school. Eccles and Harold concluded that parents with fewer children provide more help with homework than do parents with more children.