Curriculum and Development

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Describe the general characteristics of typically developing children.

2. Explain what special needs are and some of the ways in which teachers make adapta- tions to meet those needs.

3. Describe, from social and cognitive perspectives, how children’s play develops over time.

4. Explain how play is integral to important elements of curriculum.

5. Match developmental characteristics of different age groups with appropriate curricu- lum considerations.

4 Pretest 1. Typically developing children attain

developmental milestones in approximately the same sequence and time frame. T/F

2. Children with developmental needs are best served in special education classrooms. T/F

3. Play is enjoyable for children but not connected to cognitive or social development. T/F

4. Time for play should be included in the daily schedule to give children a break from curriculum activities. T/F

5. Infant caregivers can use routines such as diapering and feeding to promote language and motor development. T/F

Answers can be found at end of the chapter.

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Teaching from a Developmental Perspective Chapter 4

You have conducted home visits with the seventeen preschool children in your class. Their ages at the time of your visits ranged from 3 years, 11 months, to 4 years, 10 months. You read a story as one part of each visit, either from a book the child chose from those they had at home or one they chose from the three that you brought with you. After your visit, you made notes on each child, including these two entries:

1. Maria (age 4 years, 7 months) sat next to me on the sofa and introduced me to her stuffed monkey, which she used as a puppet to ask questions and respond to mine. She eagerly selected Curious George, telling me it was one of her favorite stories. She pointed out the title on the book’s cover, and the letters “C” and “G.” As I read the story, Maria pointed to and identified details in the illustrations, laughed at several points, predicted what would happen next, and turned the pages carefully each time I paused. After we finished, she clapped her hands and asked me to read the book again.

2. Marissa (age 3 years, 11 months) sat on her mother’s lap next to me on the sofa. When I asked if she had a book that she wanted me to read, she shook her head. When I asked if she would choose a book I had brought, she pointed to Eating the Alphabet (Ehlert, 1989). While I read, she was quiet and sucked her thumb with one hand and played with her mother’s hair with the other. She was very attentive, looking back and forth

between my face and the book, but did not volunteer ques- tions or comments. When we finished, I asked if she liked the book and she nodded her head.

Although these anecdotal entries do not constitute a formal assessment, it should be clear that while both children are interested in age-appropriate books, you would have to pro- vide different types of access to literacy curriculum activities for each child. Maria clearly appears enthusiastic about shar- ing what she already knows about books, stories that have characters and a plot, and letters (print). Marissa seems very interested in books, perhaps letters and the alphabet, but, given her demeanor, it might be difficult to tell what she knows about them and how likely it is that she will engage in reading activities independently.

In this chapter, we will consider the relationship between development and curriculum; as you read, think about what these anecdotes reveal about teaching all areas of the curricu- lum from a developmental perspective. This chapter focuses on how developmental knowledge—both general and indi- vidual—about infants, toddlers, preschoolers, kindergar- teners, and primary-aged children should guide and inform

decisions that teachers make about curriculum. We also consider the reciprocal and integrated relationship between play and development and the important role of play in the curriculum.

4.1 Teaching from a Developmental Perspective One of the primary goals of teachers as decision makers is to make sure that the curriculum “opens the door” to learning for all children in the group or class (Hull, Goldhaber, & Capone, 2002). Excellent teachers evaluate and adapt curriculum to respond to the interests, abilities,

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Teachers’ notes from home visits can provide information that will help to adapt curriculum to the individual needs and interests of children.

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Teaching from a Developmental Perspective Chapter 4

needs, and culture of every child. As explained in Chapter 1, developmentally appropriate curriculum for young children changes as their particular characteristics change over time.

Universal Expectations vs. Individual Variations

You already know that developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) addresses both the gen- eral characteristics of groups of children as well as unique variations from child to child at any particular point in time. A good curriculum will be one that is flexible enough to allow the teacher to use insights and observations of children to plan, adapt, and implement activi- ties. The scenario from the opening vignette illustrates the need for a flexible curriculum. It is also advisable to describe and communicate curriculum decisions and adaptations in terms of the elements of DAP, so that families and administrators can understand the rationale for your choices (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Gestwicki, 2011). To do this, teachers need to be aware of:

• What is generally accepted as typical in each of the three major domains of develop- ment (physical, affective, cognitive)

• What constitutes normal individual variations in both development and learning style

• The influence of culture and family on development

• How developmental delays and other special needs affect children’s learning and behavior patterns

Further, we know that developmental researchers describe, from differing theoretical perspec- tives, how children grow and learn. Teachers need to be able to recognize when a curriculum is written or described from a particular point of view. The DAP position statement describes growth and development generally from a constructivist perspective (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). However, a behaviorist orientation emphasizing sequential learning and positive rein- forcement for desired responses or actions can be seen in early childhood curricula as well, particularly those that focus on direct instruction. For example, teachers provide children with exploratory experiences (constructivist), by using materials like blocks, to promote acquisition of fundamental concepts about size, shape, balance, symmetry, and so on. But they also use rhymes, songs, and stories to provide intentional practice and positive reinforcement for rote counting (behaviorist).

The constructivist influence can be seen in advocacy for standards and curriculum that are goal-oriented, while curriculum scope and sequence still display activities for development of discrete skills on a time line (Clements & Sarama, 2004). Teachers use their knowledge of diverse developmental perspectives to make decisions about curriculum that match what they observe about how individual children learn best.

We expect to see children’s development follow a general trajectory over time as they master increasingly complex skills and gradually move from concrete to abstract thinking. For exam- ple, a 2-year-old will learn to put on his shoes, but by the time he is 4 or 5 he will also be able to tie them. That same 2-year-old may be able to name and differentiate between a horse and tiger, but 2 years later he will also be able to describe how they are similar and different.

Within this predictable sequence, curriculum must account for and support uneven develop- ment from child to child and differences in personality, interests, and dispositions (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Gestwicki, 2011). Some children are more physically active or assertive; others are passive or submissive; some children are very verbal; others are introspective and

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Teaching from a Developmental Perspective Chapter 4

quiet. One child may hone fine motor skills primarily through the use of manipulative materi- als like Legos or puzzles; another might want to spend a lot of time cutting paper, painting, and drawing. And during any general age period, a child may seem to be surging ahead in one area of development seemingly to the exclusion of others. It all evens out eventually, but a “one-size-fits all” approach to curriculum for young children is not considered developmen- tally appropriate at any time.

Typically Developing Children

Typically developing children are those considered to be representa- tive of most children in a population. The developmental progression of typically developing children is often expressed in terms of norms, bench- marks, or milestones. Growth and development are usually described with respect to specific domains, such as physical, social/emotional, cognitive, or creative.

However, researchers and curriculum specialists also emphasize that growth and learning occur as an integrated process across multiple domains (Alvior, 2014; Gestwicki, 2011; Hull,

Goldhaber, & Capone, 2002; Levine & Munsch, 2011). For example, as Maria interacts with the story of Curious George in our opening vignette, she is using cognitive skills and language in different ways and demonstrating symbolic representation in her use of the monkey as a puppet and by pointing out letters. She uses fine motor skills to point, clap, and manipulate her puppet. Her attentiveness and engagement indicate emotional connection with the char- acters in the story and emerging understanding about the social roles of reader and listener.

A brief summary of typical developmental progression follows. Developmental progression will be discussed with respect to curriculum in greater detail later in the chapter.

Physical Development From infancy throughout the early childhood period (birth to age 8), physical development typically progresses from the head downward (cephalocaudal) and from the center of the body outward (proximodistal). As the body lengthens and the head assumes a smaller propor- tion of the rest of the body, the child’s center of gravity gradually rises. Gross motor control progresses from nonlocomotive movements to eventual walking, running, hopping, skipping, and so forth. Control of fine motor processes involves everything from eye tracking to the highly controlled manual dexterity needed to draw, write, or play a musical instrument. The brain grows at a faster pace during early childhood than at any other time across the life span (Charlesworth, 2004; Levine & Munsch, 2011).

Affective Development Affective development describes how children behave and feel. Social competence, emo- tional character, and personality develop in highly individualized patterns influenced by the

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Children in any particular age group exhibit generally similar developmental characteristics, but with many variations for which teachers must adapt.

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interplay of nature (biological processes) and nurture (environmental influences). Over time and as children acquire language, their affective responses become less outwardly focused— on physical needs (e.g., crying when hungry, tired, or wet)—and more internally focused—on emotional motivations such as pride, guilt, and wanting to belong. An ethic of sharing, caring, and moral reasoning develops as children gradually gain the ability to consider multiple per- spectives and adapt to various forms of authority. Theories from many branches of psychology inform our understanding about the development of ego, personality, identity, empathy, and morality in young children (Charlesworth, 2004; Levine & Munsch, 2011) and lead to the dif- ferent approaches that teachers use to guide children to function in socially acceptable ways.

Cognitive Development Our views of intelligence, thinking, and understanding of neurological functions are changing as a result of significant research conducted over recent decades. We know that the brain receives, processes, and stores different kinds of information in specific locations. Neural con- nections, the development of hard and soft “wiring,” and brain density increase dramatically from the neonatal period throughout early childhood. Children’s thinking skills shift in focus from processing stimuli through their senses, to learning how to pay attention, understand and process information, and construct memory (Hull, Goldhaber, & Capone, 2002). Children learn to speak and develop language in predictable patterns that culminate in the ability to read, write, speak, and comprehend the nuances of language. Bilingual or multilingual chil- dren develop the ability to code switch back and forth between languages.

Learning theories describe these mental processes differently but not necessarily in ways that are mutually exclusive. Constructivists believe that children acquire mental constructs or con- cepts through reciprocal processes of responding and adapting to experiences. Behaviorists believe that learning across the life span is represented by a continual process of operant conditioning based on positive and negative reinforcement (Charlesworth, 2004; Levine & Munsch, 2011).

Developmental Delays and Special Needs

When we observe that young children do not seem to be following the generally expected path of development in one or more domains, evaluation may be indicated to determine

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Children achieve several significant milestones in their gross motor development as they acquire mobility, strength, and coordination.

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Teaching from a Developmental Perspective Chapter 4

whether the child has a special need. Special needs include any kind of need—physical, emotional, or cognitive—that differs substantially from the normal range of abilities. The child could have a developmental delay, or she could be gifted.

While it is not unusual, as discussed earlier, for an individual child’s growth and development to be uneven, at some point it may become apparent that the child is either not meeting or exceeding expected benchmarks or milestones. Sometimes special needs are apparent at birth, as in a child with a cleft palate. But in many instances it takes months or years for such needs to be recognized. You wouldn’t know, for example, if a child had speech articulation problems until that child was expected to be speaking clearly, between ages 3 and 4.

Sometimes delayed progress, a physical condition, or atypical behavior is due to factors that can be addressed with the expectation that a child will “catch up.” For instance, a tod- dler with frequent ear infections may experience a hearing impairment resulting in delayed language fluency. While medical intervention and natural growth of the structures of the inner ear will eventually resolve the frequency of infections, speech therapy and hearing accommodations may be indicated for a period of time until the child has regained normal functioning. A child born with a congenital physical condition like club feet (abnormally rotated inward) may experience many surgeries to correct the condition. The child’s ortho- pedic disability may require adaptations to the arrangement of the classroom to accom- modate leg braces or a wheelchair, with the expectation that the condition will eventually be corrected.

But other developmental disabilities will require long-term support to address learning and emotional needs throughout the early childhood period and beyond. For example, a child who displays distinctive physical behavior such as hand-flapping, inability to make eye contact, or repeating the same words over and over again should be referred for evaluation to determine if the child has autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Once diagnosed with ASD, the child may be offered occupational, speech, and cognitive therapies. Other cases of physiological, biological, or genetically inherited conditions, such as cerebral palsy or Down syndrome, con- stitute special needs that require active intervention and support on a long-term basis. Table 4.1 describes various special needs conditions (Cook & Cook, 2005).

Inclusion Federal law—the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)—requires that chil- dren with disabilities be included in regular classroom or care settings to the maximum extent possible and provides funding for resources to meet their special needs. (IDEA does not pro- vide funds to address the special needs of gifted children; programs and funding for these children are localized.)

Inclusion of children with disabilities serves several important purposes. First, typically devel- oping young children who grow up within a diverse environment learn and internalize accep- tance of their differently abled peers, which leads to higher levels of self-esteem among children who might otherwise feel marginalized or stigmatized. Second, separating children with disabilities and categorizing them by a single factor they may have in common (such as ADHD) risks grouping those who are otherwise very different from one another in many respects (Greenspan, Wieder, & Simons, 1998). Third, keeping children with delays or special needs isolated from their peers almost guarantees that they will be labeled for life in spite of the fact that except for their identified special need, they are like typically developing children in many other ways.

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Therefore teachers are expected to adapt all elements of the curriculum to serve and engage not only typically developing children but also those with special needs of all different kinds. Some teachers and caregivers without extensive training in special education may feel that they are not prepared to meet the needs of children with disabilities. Early childhood educa- tors must remember that one of the key principles of DAP is that if we consider each child as a unique individual, we accept that all children have special needs (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Making decisions about how to individualize curriculum—including the environment, materi- als, and teaching strategies—is appropriate for all children. The key is a thorough understand- ing of development across all the domains, so that curriculum is implemented with sensitivity to each child’s strengths and challenges as he or she grows and learns.

Adapting for Children with Special Needs Adaptations for children with disabilities are intended to provide as normal a school or child care setting experience for the child as possible. An adaptation is something we do to alter the physical environment, curricular materials, and/or teaching strategies to include the child in the daily life and learning opportunities of the classroom or child-care setting.

IDEA requires that all states have a Child Find process to identify children with disabilities and provide services as early as possible. Communities administer special education services for pre- school children in different ways. But if a child has been officially referred, evaluated, and diag- nosed with a condition that qualifies under IDEA as a special need, a team of people—including the teacher, family, and specialists—will work together to provide support in the school or care setting. The team will work with an individualized plan (called an Individualized Family

Table 4.1: Special Needs

Special Need Description

Physical (orthopedic) conditions

Physical limitations caused by birth defects or injury that prevent or impair mobility and/or dexterity.

Visual impairment Many potential causes that result in partial to total blindness or limited sight requiring corrective lenses.

Hearing impairment Any condition that results in less than normal hearing; may be permanent or temporary; profoundly hearing-impaired children may also have limited speech.

Speech/language impairment Difficulty in producing speech, or delayed development of language.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Difficulty paying or maintaining attention and organization, possibly accom- panied by high activity levels and restlessness.

Conduct (behavior) disorder

Oppositional defiant disorder

Problems with authority, obedience, or anger/impulse control.

Learning disability Normal intelligence but difficulty learning due to a variety of perceptual problems such as reversing or inverting letters and numbers.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

Broad continuum of behaviors that range from mild (Asperger’s syndrome) to profound difficulties with sensory processing, social interaction, and communication.

Intellectual disability Lower than normal intelligence that can be due to a number of factors, mostly genetic in origin.

Giftedness Much higher than normal intelligence or aptitude in one or more develop- mental domains.

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The Importance of Play Chapter 4

Service Plan [IFSP] for children from birth to age 3 or an Individualized Education Plan [IEP] for a child over 3 years of age) that identifies specific curricular and developmental goals, needed resources, adaptations, and support personnel, time lines, and follow-up measures.

Table 4.2 provides examples of the kinds of adaptations that might be made for children with different kinds of special needs.

Table 4.2: Examples of Adaptations for Special Needs

Physical Limitations (Office of Head Start, 2012)

Visual Impairments (Cox & Dykes, 2001; Monahan, 2011)

Speech and/ or Hearing Impairments (Anderson, 2012)

Learning Disabilities and Behavioral Issues (Office of Head Start, 2012)

Gifted and Talented (Cook & Cook, 2005)

Modify equipment for access (e.g., raising or lowering easel, taping feet to trike pedals).

Maintain unob- structed pathways and keep furniture and materials always in the same place.

Reduce background noise; make eye contact when speaking.

Reduce distrac- tions (e.g., give one material at a time, limit choices).

Offer differentiated materials and activi- ties that provide sufficient challenge.

Arrange furniture for safe and easy access.

Familiarize with locations of all spaces the child will use.

Use hand signals to communicate needs; offer inter- preter and/or sign language training.

Use picture charts for step-by-step directions or schedules.

Provide oppor- tunities to work independently.

Adapt materials so child can work as independently as possible.

Arrange special lighting and/ or magnification devices.

Maintain predict- able routines.

Work with children in small groups or individually.

Work with children in small groups or individually.

Allow extra time for physical tasks that are difficult, such as dressing or eating.

Provide seating close to needed resources.

Arrange seating close to the teacher.

Seat distract- ible child in lap for large-group activities.

Simplify routines to as few steps as possible.

Provide reading matter with large or raised print; large, brightly colored or high-contrast toys; materials with textured surfaces.

Provide amplifica- tion devices.

Ensure that there is ample time and notice of transition times.

4.2 The Importance of Play Whatever their needs, we know that all young children learn through all their senses, and that a good curriculum will provide activities that encourage looking, listening, tasting, smell- ing, and touching. Early childhood educators and researchers agree that young children are primarily active learners. They should not spend long periods of time in whole-group or drill- and-skill activities; that is, hands-on experiences with objects and materials and time to move and use their bodies are the best match for this developmental period. The primary focus of

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a curriculum for young children should be the integration of experiences across all of a child’s developmental domains and learning through play.

The child’s right to play was expressed as a global concern in 1989 in the form of a U.N. General Assembly resolution at the Convention on the Rights of the Child (International Play Association, 2009). Article 31 states the following:

That every child has the right to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts.

That member governments shall respect and promote the right of the child to partici- pate fully in cultural and artistic life and shall encourage the provision of appropriate and equal opportunities for cultural, artistic, recreational and leisure activity.

What Is Play?

Most early childhood educators agree that play is an active and enjoyable activity that is internally motivated, process-oriented, and directed by the players. The International Play Association (2009) has this to say about play:

[It should be] controlled by children rather than adults, and . . . undertaken for its own sake and not for prescribed purposes. The term “free play” is often used to dis- tinguish this from organized recreational and learning activities, which of course also have important roles in child development. However, the characteristics of free play— such as control, uncertainty, flexibility, novelty, non-productivity—are what produce a high degree of pleasure and, simultaneously, the incentive to continue to play. Recent neurological research indicates that this type of behavior plays a significant role in the development of the brain’s structure and chemistry.

Play seems to be a universal. Left to their own devices, all children play, regardless of parental or teacher involvement. We examine and research play, then, in terms of how children engage and the influence and impact that play has on child development and learning.

Benefits of Play

Neuroscientists have become increasingly focused on the connections between play and brain development. A theory of mind has emerged that describes how the child’s process of under- standing the difference between reality and the abstract develops through symbolic play (Bodrova & Leong, 2007). When a 3-year-old begins to use wooden blocks to represent a road or pieces of colored paper to represent fish in an imaginary aquarium, the foundation is laid for later representation of sounds with the squiggles we call letters or the measurement of temperature by a column of mercury in a thermometer.

Much has also been learned over time about the role of language as children develop play scripts (Bateson, 1976). When one child announces to another, “Let’s play veterinarian—I’ll be the doctor and you be the puppy,” we see them acquiring the ability to assume roles that may be based on reality or what they clearly know to be absurd. They demonstrate a tenta- tive understanding about the relationships between doctors and patients or the difference between doctors who treat humans and those who treat animals. As they share their ideas about how to act out this theme, perhaps arguing or changing the direction of the story line,

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they practice using words to be persuasive, solve problems, and give each other feedback on how the play is going.

Some studies have also confirmed that play promotes higher-order thinking. This is charac- terized by children’s ability to carry on an internal dialogue, essentially self-talking their way through the decision-making process by weighing options, analyzing information, and mak- ing subsequent choices. Children develop cognitive control as they stifle impulsivity and learn to focus and concentrate (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Bunge & Crone, 2009). This happens when they are encouraged to make their own activity choices, learn through trial and error, and construct and apply rules to different situations. Cognitive science is helping teachers learn when, how, and how much to intervene to promote the kind of complex play scenarios that develop executive functioning.

Play provides powerful natural consequences and opportunities for children to use language so that the play can continue. Adults tell children to use their words to solve problems, but children need practice that play provides in order to do so. Let’s say that four children have proceeded to set up the veterinarian’s office, with one child assuming the role of a sick puppy. As they act out bringing the puppy to the examining table, he is creeping on all fours as a puppy would but using words to tell how he feels sick. The other three children complain and claim that he is ruining their play because “puppies don’t talk, they whine or whimper when they are sick. If you don’t act like a puppy, someone else will have to be the puppy.” They have given the puppy actor the information he needs to modify his actions so he can continue to be included in the play.

While the children have had a difference of opinion, they have also used matter-of-fact lan- guage to explain their feelings without being hurtful. It’s important for children to have time and the opportunity to invent their own games and direct their own play if they are to under- stand the value of rules and consequences and the importance of consensus.

Play is where everything children experience in isolation comes together. It’s where they begin to make sense of the present world and to imagine the future. It happens inside a bubble of

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All children are motivated to play. In 1989 the United Nations expressed the conviction that every child has a right to play.

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safety that allows mistakes to occur without pun- ishment, encourages experimentation without the pressure of accountability, and supports risk taking without fear of disapproval or a bad grade. It is where creativity, imagination, and problem solving are rewarded with acceptance, joy, and satisfaction (Jaruszewicz, 2008).

Play Perspectives

Most modern research and theory about play falls into two categories: play as cognitive construct and play as social construct. Both of these perspectives are important and provide a useful framework for teachers to observe and interpret children’s play as a part of the curriculum planning and implementa- tion process.

Cognitive Perspectives Piaget described qualitative changes to play over the early childhood period; he saw play develop- ment as a series of stages that paralleled the child’s increasing complexity of thought and reasoning. Practice play is characterized by reflexive, repetitive, or functional actions, as when a toddler pounds large pegs into a block of wood with matching holes. Also known as functional play, this type of activity takes place during the sensorimotor stage of development in infants and toddlers.

Symbolic play develops during the preoperational period from ages 2 to 7 but includes two distinct types of representational play. In the early part of this stage, children begin to use one thing to represent another, such as a block for a truck or, on the playground, wood chips and water to make soup in a bucket. A higher and more complex form of symbolic play occurs as 4- and 5-year olds begin to develop and engage in pretend play with roles and themes.

Play that focuses on games with rules emerges as children move from preoperational to concrete operational thinking. At the early part of this stage, children in kindergarten and first grade attempt to play games with rules, understanding their purpose but not necessarily the concept that for a game to work, all players must be using the same ones! For instance, while playing tag, with the very simple rule that when you are tagged you are out, different children may have very different ideas of what constitutes a “tag”—one child may interpret a tag as a touch while another equates a tag with a tackle.

As they gain an understanding of the need for constancy, children embrace and enjoy all kinds of board and card games as well as sports and active games, and they make up games with their own rules. During this period, children also become consumed with the concept of fairness, since they often interpret what is fair according to their developing understanding of rules.

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Dramatic play is important to development in many ways.

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Social Perspectives In 1932 Mildred Parten described a continuum of four increasingly interactive social levels of play. She named these solitary, parallel, associative, and cooperative to correspond with chil- dren’s level of involvement with others during play. Although the time frames Parten initially described have been shown to be more fluid than was first thought, early childhood educa- tors still widely accept this way of characterizing the social aspects of play over time (GEMS World Academy, n.d.; Howes, Unger, & Matheson, 1992).

In solitary play, the older infant or young toddler (1 to 2 years old) is absorbed in her own actions, independent of other children, manipulating objects and engaging in the type of practice or functional play Piaget described.

The next three stages of social play occur during Piaget’s cognitive stage of symbolic play and occur as the child becomes more interested in friendship and playing with others. Parallel play continues with 2- and 3-year-olds, who play separately but with increasing curiosity in the activities of other children nearby. You might see two children playing side by side with wooden tracks and toy cars, watching each other and one perhaps imitating what the other is doing but not choosing to share their cars and build a road together.

Between 3 and 4 years of age, preschoolers begin to engage in associative play, which involves sharing play items with another child, taking turns, and showing interest in play activities with a shared goal. For instance, you might see two 3½-year-olds both pushing a big truck to move a pile of wooden blocks across the floor.

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Theories at-a-Glance The tables in this book compare theories over a range of topics, thereby providing you with the ability to easily compare, contrast, and grasp the practical aspects of each theory. These tables also serve as invaluable resources that can be used to review the key concepts, philoso- phies, limitations, contributions to multicultural counseling, applications, techniques, and goals of all theories in this text.

The following chart provides a convenient guide to the tables in this text.

Pages

6 –7 Table 1.1 Overview of Contemporary Counseling Models

62– 63 Table 4.1 Ego-Defense Mechanisms

65– 66 Table 4.2 Comparison of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages and Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

432 Table 15.1 The Basic Philosophies

433– 434 Table 15.2 Key Concepts

438 Table 15.3 Goals of Therapy

441– 442 Table 15.4 The Therapeutic Relationship

443– 444 Table 15.5 Techniques of Therapy

444– 445 Table 15.6 Applications of the Approaches

446 Table 15.7 Contributions to Multicultural Counseling

447 Table 15.8 Limitations in Multicultural Counseling

448– 449 Table 15.9 Contributions of the Approaches

449– 450 Table 15.10 Limitations of the Approaches

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Overview of Focus Questions for the Theories For the chapters dealing with the different theories, you will have a basic understand- ing of this book if you can answer the following questions as they apply to each of the eleven theories:

Who are the key figures (founder or founders) associated with the approach?

What are some of the basic assumptions underlying this approach?

What are a few of the key concepts that are essential to this theory?

What do you consider to be the most important goals of this therapy?

What is the role the therapeutic relationship plays in terms of therapy outcomes?

What are a few of the techniques from this therapy model that you would want to incorporate into your counseling practice?

What are some of the ways that this theory is applied to client populations, settings, and treat- ment of problems?

What do you see as the major strength of this theory from a diversity perspective?

What do you see as the major shortcoming of this theory from a diversity perspective?

What do you consider to be the most significant contribution of this approach?

What do you consider to be the most significant limitation of this approach?

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Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Gerald Corey California State University, Fullerton Diplomate in Counseling Psychology,

American Board of Professional Psychology

Theory and PracTice of counseling and

PsychoTheraPy Tenth Edition

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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015

© 2017, 2013, Cengage Learning

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy, Tenth Edition Gerald Corey

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To the founders and key figures of the theories presented

in this book—with appreciation for their contributions

to contemporary counseling practice.

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iv

abouT The auThor

gerald corey is Professor Emeritus of Human Services and Counseling at California State University at Fullerton. He received his doctorate in counseling from the University of Southern California. He is a Diplomate in Counseling Psy- chology, American Board of Professional Psychology; a licensed psychologist; and a National Certified Counselor. He is a Fellow of the American Psychological Associa- tion (Division 17, Counseling Psychology; and Division 49, Group Psychotherapy); a Fellow of the American Counseling Association; and a Fellow of the Association for Specialists in Group Work. He also holds memberships in the American Group Psychotherapy Association; the American Mental Health Counselors Association; the Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Religious Values in Counseling; the Asso- ciation for Counselor Education and Supervision; and the Western Association of Counselor Education and Supervision. Both Jerry and Marianne Corey received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Mental Health Counselors Associ- ation in 2011, and both of them received the Eminent Career Award from ASGW in 2001. Jerry was given the Outstanding Professor of the Year Award from California State University at Fullerton in 1991. He regularly teaches both undergraduate and graduate courses in group counseling and ethics in counseling. He is the author or coauthor of 15 textbooks in counseling currently in print, along with more than 60 journal articles and book chapters. Several of his books have been translated into other languages. Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy has been trans- lated into Arabic, Indonesian, Portuguese, Turkish, Korean, and Chinese. Theory and Practice of Group Counseling has been translated into Korean, Chinese, Spanish, and Russian. Issues and Ethics in the Helping Professions has been translated into Korean, Japanese, and Chinese.

In the past 40 years Jerry and Marianne Corey have conducted group counsel- ing training workshops for mental health professionals at many universities in the United States as well as in Canada, Mexico, China, Hong Kong, Korea, Germany, Belgium, Scotland, England, and Ireland. In his leisure time, Jerry likes to travel, hike and bicycle in the mountains, and drive his 1931 Model A Ford. Marianne and Jerry have been married since 1964. They have two adult daughters, Heidi and Cindy, two granddaughters (Kyla and Keegan), and one grandson (Corey).

Recent publications by Jerry Corey, all with Cengage Learning, include:

�� Theory and Practice of Group Counseling, Ninth Edition (and Student Manual) (2016)

�� Becoming a Helper, Seventh Edition (2016, with Marianne Schneider Corey)

�� Issues and Ethics in the Helping Professions, Ninth Edition (2015, with Mari- anne Schneider Corey, Cindy Corey, and Patrick Callanan)

�� Group Techniques, Fourth Edition (2015, with Marianne Schneider Corey, Patrick Callanan, and J. Michael Russell)

�� Groups: Process and Practice, Ninth Edition (2014, with Marianne Schnei- der Corey and Cindy Corey)

iv

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v

�� I Never Knew I Had a Choice, Tenth Edition (2014, with Marianne Schneider Corey)

�� Case Approach to Counseling and Psychotherapy, Eighth Edition (2013) �� The Art of Integrative Counseling, Third Edition (2013)

Jerry Corey is coauthor (with Barbara Herlihy) of Boundary Issues in Counseling: Multiple Roles and Responsibilities, Third Edition (2015) and ACA Ethical Standards Case- book, Seventh Edition (2015); he is coauthor (with Robert Haynes, Patrice Moulton, and Michelle Muratori) of Clinical Supervision in the Helping Professions: A Practical Guide, Second Edition (2010); he is the author of Creating Your Professional Path: Les- sons From My Journey (2010). All four of these books are published by the American Counseling Association.

He has also made several educational DVD programs on various aspects of counseling practice: (1) Ethics in Action: DVD and Workbook (2015, with Marianne Schneider Corey and Robert Haynes); (2) Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges DVD and Workbook (2014, with Marianne Schneider Corey and Robert Haynes); (3) DVD for Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy: The Case of Stan and Lecturettes (2013); (4) DVD for Integrative Counseling: The Case of Ruth and Lecturettes (2013, with Robert Haynes); and (5) DVD for Theory and Practice of Group Counseling (2012). All of these programs are available through Cengage Learning.

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Preface xi

P A R T 1

BASIC ISSUES IN COUNSELING PRACTICE

1 Introduction and Overview 1 introduction 2 Where I Stand 3 Suggestions for Using the Book 5 Overview of the Theory Chapters 6 Introduction to the Case of Stan 9 Introduction to the Case of Gwen 13

2 The Counselor: Person and Professional 17

introduction 18 The Counselor as a Therapeutic Person 18 Personal Therapy for the Counselor 20 The Counselor’s Values and the Therapeutic Process 22 Becoming an Effective Multicultural Counselor 25 Issues Faced by Beginning Therapists 28 Summary 35

3 Ethical Issues in Counseling Practice 37

introduction 38 Putting Clients’ Needs Before Your Own 38 Ethical Decision Making 39 The Right of Informed Consent 41 Dimensions of Confidentiality 42 Ethical Issues From a Multicultural Perspective 43 Ethical Issues in the Assessment Process 45 Ethical Aspects of Evidence-Based Practice 48 Managing Multiple Relationships in Counseling Practice 49 Becoming an Ethical Counselor 52 Summary 53

Where to Go From Here 53 Recommended Supplementary Readings for Part 1 54

P A R T 2

THEORIES AND TECHNIQUES OF COUNSELING

4 Psychoanalytic Therapy 57 introduction 58 Key Concepts 59 The Therapeutic Process 66 Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Procedures 72 Jung’s Perspective on the Development of Personality 77 Contemporary Trends: Object-Relations Theory, Self Psychology, and Relational Psychoanalysis 79 Psychoanalytic Therapy From a Multicultural Perspective 84 Psychoanalytic Therapy applied to the case of stan 85 Psychoanalytic Therapy applied to the case of gwen 87 Summary and Evaluation 89 Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 92 Where to Go From Here 92 Recommended Supplementary Readings 93

5 Adlerian Therapy 95 introduction 98 Key Concepts 98 The Therapeutic Process 104 Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Procedures 108 Adlerian Therapy From a Multicultural Perspective 119 adlerian Therapy applied to the case of stan 121 adlerian Therapy applied to the case of gwen 122

Contents

vii

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viii C o n t e n t s

Summary and Evaluation 124 Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 126 Where to Go From Here 127 Recommended Supplementary Readings 128

6 Existential Therapy 129 introduction 132 Key Concepts 137 The Therapeutic Process 146 Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Procedures 149 Existential Therapy From a Multicultural Perspective 153 existential Therapy applied to the case of stan 155 existential Therapy applied to the case of gwen 156 Summary and Evaluation 157 Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 160 Where to Go From Here 160 Recommended Supplementary Readings 162

7 Person-Centered Therapy 163 introduction 165 Key Concepts 170 The Therapeutic Process 171 Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Procedures 176 Person-Centered Expressive Arts Therapy 180 Motivational Interviewing 182 Person-Centered Therapy From a Multicultural Perspective 184 Person-centered Therapy applied to the case of stan 186 Person-centered Therapy applied to the case of gwen 187 Summary and Evaluation 190 Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 193 Where to Go From Here 193 Recommended Supplementary Readings 195

8 Gestalt Therapy 197 introduction 199 Key Concepts 200 The Therapeutic Process 206

Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Procedures 211 Gestalt Therapy From a Multicultural Perspective 220 gestalt Therapy applied to the case of stan 221 gestalt Therapy applied to the case of gwen 223 Summary and Evaluation 224 Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 227 Where to Go From Here 227 Recommended Supplementary Readings 229

9 Behavior Therapy 231 introduction 233 Key Concepts 236 The Therapeutic Process 238 Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Procedures 240 Behavior Therapy From a Multicultural Perspective 258 behavior Therapy applied to the case of stan 259 behavior Therapy applied to the case of gwen 260 Summary and Evaluation 262 Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 265 Where to Go From Here 266 Recommended Supplementary Readings 267

10 Cognitive Behavior Therapy 269 introduction 270 Albert Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy 270 Key Concepts 272 The Therapeutic Process 273 Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Procedures 275 Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Therapy 281 Christine Padesky and Kathleen Mooney’s Strengths-Based Cognitive Behavioral Therapy 289 Donald Meichenbaum’s Cognitive Behavior Modification 293 Cognitive Behavior Therapy From a Multicultural Perspective 298 cognitive behavior Therapy applied to the case of stan 300 cognitive behavior Therapy applied to the case of gwen 302 Summary and Evaluation 303

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C o n t e n t s ix

Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 307 Where to Go From Here 308 Recommended Supplementary Readings 310

11 Choice Theory/Reality Therapy 311

introduction 313 Key Concepts 314 The Therapeutic Process 318 Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Procedures 320 Choice Theory/Reality Therapy From a Multicultural Perspective 327 reality Therapy applied to the case of stan 329 reality Therapy applied to the case of gwen 331 Summary and Evaluation 332 Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 334 Where to Go From Here 334 Recommended Supplementary Readings 336

12 Feminist Therapy 337 introduction 339 Key Concepts 341 The Therapeutic Process 345 Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Procedures 348 Feminist Therapy From a Multicultural and Social Justice Perspective 354 feminist Therapy applied to the case of stan 355 feminist Therapy applied to the case of gwen 357 Summary and Evaluation 360 Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 364 Where to Go From Here 364 Recommended Supplementary Readings 366