COMMON REFERENCES Al A GLANCE

Journal article (Example 1) McCauley, S. M., & Christiansen, M. H. (2019). Language learn in g as langu age use: A cross-

lingui stic model of ch ild languag e development. Psycho logica l Review, 126(1), 1-51. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000126

Newspaper article (Example 16) Guarino, B. (2017, December4). Howw ill hum an ity reactto alien life? Psyc hologists have some

predictions. The Washington Post. https ://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of- science/wp/2017 /12/04/ ho w-will-humanity-react-to-ali en -life-psychologi st s-ha ve-som e – predictions

Authored book (Example 20) Brown, L. S. (2018). Feminist therapy (2nd ed.). American Psychological Assoc iation . https://

doi.org/1 0.1 037/0000092-000

Chapter in an edited book (Example 38) Balsam, K. F., Martell, C. R., Jones, K. P. , & Safren, S. A. (2019). Affirmative cognitive behavior

therapy with sexua l and gender minority people. In G. Y. Iwamasa & P. A. Ha ys (Eds.), Cultur- al/y responsive cognitive behavior therapy: Practice and supervision (2nd ed., pp. 287-314). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000119-012

Dictionary entry (Example 47) Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Self-report. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved July 12,

2019, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/self-report

Government report (Example 50) National Cancer Insti tute. (2018). Facing forward: Life after cancer treatment (NIH Publica-

tion No. 18-2424). U.S. Dep~rtment of Hea lth and Human Services, National In stitutes of H ea Ith. https:!/www.cancer.gov/publications/patient-educati on/I ife-aher-treatment. pdf

YouTube video (Example 90) University of Oxford. (2018, December 6). Ho w do geckos wa lk on water? [Video]. YouTube.

Government webpage or website (Example 111) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018, January 23). People at high risk of deve/-

oping f/u-related complications. https://www.cdc.govlflu/about/disease/high_risk.htm

See Chapter 10 for more reference examples.

 

 

More than 15 million copies sold!

Write With Clarity, Precision, and Inclusion

P.ublication Manual oí the American P.sy’chological Association,

officia l source fo~ APA Style. With millions of cofJies sold worldwide in multifJle

languages, it is the style manual of choice for writers, researcliers, .- and educators in the social and behavioral nursing, communica-

tions, education, business, engineering,

Known fo~ its authoritative, easy-to-use reference and • • rIl!l!!mJm· m··… · · .. …. •• … … … .

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NEW TO THIS EDITION

… . .. “. – .. othe~ fJafJer tYfJes as well as guidelines on citing

authors and student writers

new chafJters on journal refJorting standards, bias-free language guidelines,

and legal references

. – 100 new reference examRles covering Reriodicals, books, audiovisual social media, webfJages and websites, and ot – . . – . ‘. new sample tables and figures

guidelines that sUfJR0rt accessibility for all users, including simRlified referenc

heading formats as well as additional font ofJtions

978-1-4338-3215 – 4 I 90000 9 781433 832154

 

 

SEVENTH EDITlON

PUBLICATION

anua of the American Psychological Association

THE OFFICIAL GUIDE TO APA STYLE

@ AMERICAN PSYCHOlOGICAl ASSOCIATlON Washington, DC

 

 

Copyright © 2020 by the American Psychological Association (APA). AII rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, including, but not limited to, the process of scanning and digitization, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission ofthe publisher.

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Typeset in Aria and Avenir

APA Style Director: Emily L. Ayubi

APA Style Content Development Managers: Chelsea L. Bromstad Lee, Hayley S. Kamin, and Timothy L. McAdoo

APA Style Editors: Anne T. Woodworth and Ayanna A. Adams

Director, Print & Electronic Book Production: Jennifer M. Meidinger

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The correct reference for this book is as follows:

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ISBN 978-1-4338-3215-4 (Hardcover)

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CONTENTS

List of Tables and Figures ix

Editorial Staff and Contributors xiii

Acknowledgments xv

Introduction xvii

1 Scholarly Writing and Publishing Principies 3 Types of Articles and Papers 4

ETHICAL, LEGAL, AND PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS IN PUBLlSHING 11

Ensuring the Accuracy of Scientific Findings 11

Protecting the Rights and Welfare of Research Participants and Subjects 21

Protecting Intellectual Property Rights 24

2 Paper Elements and Format Required Elements 29

Paper Elements 30

Format 43

Organization 47

SAMPLE PAPERS 50

3 Journal Article Reporting Standards Overview of Reporting Standards 72

Common Reporting Standards Across Research Designs 73

Reporting Standards for Ouantitative Research 77

Reporting Standards for Oualitative Research 93

Reporting Standards for Mixed Methods Research 105

29

71

v

 

 

9 Reference List Reference Citegories 281

Principies of Reference List Entries 283

REFERENCE ELEMENTS 285

Author 285

Date 289

Title 291

Source 293

Reference Variations 301

Reference List Format and Order 303

10 Reference Examples Author Variations 314

Date Variations 315

Title Variations 315

Source Variations 316

Textual Works 316

Data Sets, Software, and Tests 337

Audiovisual Media 341

Online Media 348

11 Legal References General Guidelines for Legal References 355

Legal Reference Examples 357

12 Publication Process Preparing for Publication 371

Understanding the Editorial Publication Process 376

Manuscr-ipt Preparation 381

Copyright and Permission Guidelines 384

During and After Publication 390

Credits for Adapted Tables, Figures, and Papers 397

References 401

Index 407

CONTENTS ~ vii

281

313

355

371

 

 

LIST OF TABLES ANO FIGURES

Tables

Table 2.1 Effective and Ineffective Paper Titles 33

Table 2.2 Examples of Author Bylines and Affiliations 34

Table 2.3 Format for the Five Levels of Heading in APA Style 48

Table 3.1 Quantitative Design Reporting Standards (JARS-Quant) 77

Table 3.2 Qualitative Design Reporting Standards (JARS-Qual) 95

Table 3 .3 Mixed Methods Design Reporting Standards (JARS-Mixed) 106

Table 4.1 Recommended Verb Tenses in APA Style Papers 118

Table 6 .1 Guide to Hyphenating Temporary Compound Terms 163

Table 6.2 Prefixes and Suffixes That Do Not Require Hyphens 164

Table 6 .3 Compound Words That Require Hyphens 164

Table 6.4 Abbreviations for Common Units of Measurement 175

Table 6 .5 Statistical Abbreviations and Symbols 183

Table 7.1 Basic Components of aTable 200

Table 7.2 Sample Demographic Characteristics Table 210

Table 7 .3 Sample Properties of Study Variables Table 211

Table 7.4 Sample Meta-Analysis Summary Table 212

Table 7.5 Sample Summary of Complex Experimental Design Table 213

Table 7 .6 Sample Descriptive Statistics for Study Measures Table 213

Table 7 .7 Sample Chi-Square Analysis Table 214

Table 7 .8 Sample Results of Several t Tests Table 214

Table 7.9 Sample a Priori or Post Hoc Comparisons Table 215

Table 7 .10 Sample Correlation Table for One Sample 215

Table 7.11 Sample Correlation Table for Two Samples 216

Table 7 .12 Sample Analysis of Variance Table (Option 1) 216

Table 7.13 Sample Analysis of Variance Table (Option 2) 217

ix

 

 

x C\v LlST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 7.14 Sample Factor Analysis Table 218

Table 7 .1 5 Sample Regression Table, Without Confidence Intervals 219

Table 7.16 Sample Regression Table, With Confidence Intervals in Brackets 219

Table 7.17 Sample Regression Table, With Confidence Intervals in Separate 220

Columns

Table 7.18 Sample Hierarchical Multiple Regression Table 221

Table 7.19 Sample Model Comparison Table 221

Table 7.20 Sample Multilevel Model Comparison Table 222

Table 7.21 Sample Confirmatory Factor Analysis Model Comparison Table 223

Table 7.22 Sample Oualitative Table With Variable Descriptions 223

Table 7.23 Sample Oualitative Table Incorporating Ouantitative Data 224

Table 7.24 Sample Mixed Methods Table 224

Table 8.1 Basic In-Text Citation Styles 266

Table 8.2 Examples of Direct Ouotations Cited in the Text 272

Table 9.1 How to Create a Reference When Information 15 Missing 284

Table 11 .1 Key Differences Between APA Style References and Legal References 356

Table 11.2 Common Legal Reference Abbreviations 357

Table 12.1 Copyright Attribution Templates 390

Table 12.2 Example Copyright Attributions for Reprinted or Adapted Tables 391

and Figures

Figures

Figure 2.1 Sample Professional Title Page 31

Figure 2.2 Sample Stude~t Title Page 32

Figure 2.3 Sample Auth o r Note 38

Figure 2.4 Use of Headings in a Sample Introduction 48

Figure 2.5 Format of Headings in a Sample Paper 49

Figure 3.1 Flowchart of Ouantitative Reporting Standards to Follow Depending 82 on Research Design

Figure 7.1 Basic Components of a Figure 226

Figure 7.2 Sample Bar Graph 234

Figure 7.3 Sample Line Graph 235

Figure 7.4 Sample Figure Showing the Flow of Participants Through a Study 236 Process

Figure 7.5 Sample CONSORT Flow Diagram 237

Figure 7.6 Sample Conceptual Model 238

Figure 7.7 Sample Structural Equation Model 239

Figure 7.8 Sample Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results Figure 240

Figure 7.9 Sample Path Model 240

Figure 7.10 Sample Oualitative Research Figure 241

Figure 7.11 Sample Mixed Methods Research Figure 242

Figure 7.12 Sample Illustration of Experimental Setup 243

Figure 7.13 Sample Illustration of Experimental Stimuli 243

 

 

Ll ST OF TABLES AND FI GURES ~ xi

Figure 7.14 Sample Map 244

Figure 7.15 Sample Scatterplot 245

Figure 7.16 Sample Multidimensional Scaling Figure 246

Figure 7.17 Sample Photograph 247

Figure 7.18 Sample Complex Multipanel Figure 248

Figure 7.19 Sample Event-Related Potential Figure 249

Figure 7.20 Sample fMRI Figure 249

Figure 7.21 Sample Display of Genetic Material (Physical Map) 250

Figure 8.1 Example of an Appropriate Level of Citation 254

Figure 8.2 Correspondence Between a Reference List Entry and an In-Text 262 Citation

Figure 8.3 Example of Repeated Narrative Citations With the Year Omitted 265

Figure 8.4 Example of a Long Paraphrase With a Single In-Text Citation 270

Figure 8.5 Example of Repeated Citations Necessary to Clarify Sources 271

Figure 8.6 Example of Changes Made to a Direet Ouotation 275

Figure 8.7 Example of Citations Omitted at the End of a Ouotation 276

Figure 9.1 Example of Where to Find Reference Information for a Journal Article 283

Figure 9.2 Examples of the Order of Works in a Reference List 304

Figure 9.3 Sample Annotated Bibliography 308

Figure 9.4 Use of Asterisks to Indicate Studies Included in a Meta-Analysis 309

Figure 12.1 Flowchart of Manuscript Progression From Submission to Publication 377

 

 

EDITORIAL STAFF AND

CONTRIBUTORS

Project Director

Emily L. Ayubi

APA Style Team

Chelsea L. Bromstad Lee

Hayley S. Kamin

Timothy L. McAdoo

Anne T. Woodworth

Ayanna A. Adams

Publication Manual Revision Task Force

James Campbell Ouick, Chair

Mark Appelbaum

Jacklynn Mary Fitzgerald

Scott Hines

Heidi M . Levitt

Arthur M. Nezu

Pamela Reid

APA Publications and Communications Board Task Force on Journal Article Reporting Standards

APA Working Group on Ouantitative Research Reporting Standards

Mark Appelbaum, Chair

Harris Cooper

Rex B. Kline

Evan Mayo-Wilson

Arthur M . Nezu

Stephen M. Rao

James Campbell Ouick, Publications and Communications Board Liaison

APA Working Group on Reporting Standards for Oualitative Research

Heidi M. Levitt, Chair

Michael Bamberg

John W. Creswell

David M. Frost

Ruthellen Josselson

Carola Suárez-Orozco

James Campbell Ouick, Publications and Communications Board Liaison

APA Public Interest Bias-Free Language Committees

Committee on Aging

Walter R. Boot

Brian Carpenter

Erin E. Emery-Tiburcio

Margaret Norris

Patricia A. Parmelee

Maggie L. Syme

Deborah A. DiGilio, Staff Liaison

Committee on Disability Issues in Psychology

Erin E. Andrews

Susan D’Mello

Jennifer J. Duchnick

xiii

 

 

xiv ~ EDI TO RI A L STAF F A ND CON TRIBUT O RS

Dana S. Dunn

John W. Hagen

Pooma Kushalnagar

Eun-Jeong Lee

Erin M . Liebich

Treven Curtis Pickett

Jennifer Reesman

Karrie A. Shogren

Maggie K. Butler, Staff Liaison

Committee on Ethnic Minority Affairs

A. Kathleen Burlew

Milton A. Fuentes

Daniel Gaztambide

Scott Graves

Kelli Johnson

Michelle Madore

Sandra Mattar

Helen A. Neville

Don Operario

Wendy Peters

Don Pope-Davis

Tiffany Townsend, Staff Liaison

Alberto Figueroa-García, Staff Liaison

Committee on Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity

Mark Brennan-Ing

Sarah Burgamy

Arlene Noriega

Seth T. Pardo

Julia Z. Benjamin, American Psychological Association of Graduate Stude nts CSOGD Chair

Clinton Anderson, Staff Liaison

Ron Schlittler, Staff Liaison

Committee on Socioeconomic Sta tus

Rosario Ceballo

Ramani Durvasula

John Ruiz

Wendy R. Williams

Keyona King-Tsikata, Staff Liaiso n

Maha Khalid, Staff Liaison

Committee on Women in Psychology

Alette Coble-Temple

Paola Michelle Contreras

Sarah L. Cook

Diya Kallivayalil

Shannon Lynch

Charlotte McCloskey

Alayne J. Ormerod

Lauren Stutts

Shari E. Miles-Cohen, Staff Liaison

Tanya Burrwell Dozier, Staff Liaison

Reviewers

Tricia B. Bent-Goodley

Melinda Knight

Rachel Mack

Cynthia Saver

Frank C. Worrell

Jeff Zuckerman

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The precursor to the Publication Manual oi the American Psychological Association was published in 1929 as a seven-page article in Psychological Bulletin describing a “standard of procedure, to which exceptions would doubtless be necessary, but to which reference might be made in cases of doubt” (Bentley et al. , 1929, p. 57). Since then, the scope and length of the Publication Manual have grown in response to the needs of researchers, students, and educators across the social and behavioral sciences, health care, natural sciences, humanities, and more; however, the spirit of the original authors’ intentions remains.

To address changes in scholarly writing and publishing since the release of the sixth edition, we consulted many professional groups and experts (each recognized individually in the Editorial Staff and Contributors list). We thank members of the Publication Manual Revision Task Force for their vision for the manual and for ensuring that our guidance reflects current best practices. We also thank the APA Working Group on Quantitative Research Reporting Stan- dards for updating the originaljournal article reporting standards (JARS) for quantitative research and the APA Working Group on Reporting Standards for Qualitative Research for their groundbreaking work in establishing the first set of qualitative and mixed methods JARS in APA Style . We are indebted to members of the APA Public Interest Directorate committees and other advo- cacy groups who revised the bias-free language guidelines on age, disability, rae e and ethnicity, sexual orientation and gender diversity, and socio eco- nomic status. We are also grateful to the reviewers who provided valuable per- spectives while representing psychology, nursing, education, business, social work, ethics, and writing instruction.

The important work of the Publication Manual Revision Task Force, JARS working groups, APA bias-free language committees, and other experts builds on efforts from previous groups. Thus, we also acknowledge the significant contri- butions of prior task forces, working groups, and APA staff members who revised previous editions of the Publication Manual.

For their guidance on writing about older adults with respect and dignity, we thank Nancy Lundebjerg and Dan Trucil from the American Geriatrics Soci-

xv

 

 

xvi C\.y ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ety. For her contribution to the sections on race and ethnicity, we thank Karen Suyemoto from the University of Massachusetts Boston. For their insights on sexual orientation, gender, and disability, we thank reviewers from the Human Rights Campaign: Jay Brown, Katalina Hadfield, Ellen Kahn, and Sula Malina. We also thank lore m. dickey, Mira Krishnan, and Anneliese A. Singh, mem- bers of APA Division 44: Society for the Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, for their expertise in revising the sections on sexual orien- tation and gender diversity. For his suggestions regarding substance use lan- guage, we thank William W. Stoops from the University of Kentucky College of Medicine. They all shared their wisdom and passion for their communities to help people write with respect and inclusivity.

This edition of the Publication Manual is more accessible thanks in large part to the enthusiastic, detailed, and thoughtful contributions from David Berman Communications- in particular, David Berman, Michael E. Cooper, Hannah Langford Berman, and Krisandra Ivings. They helped refine our rec- ommendations for fonts , headings , reference style, color contrast, and more to benefit all people who will use the manual.

For their guidance on presenting findings in tables and figures, we thank Adelheid A. M. Nicol and Penny M. Pexman. We also thank Gilad Chen, Anne M. Galletta, Roger Giner-Sorolla, Kevin Grimm, Lisa 1. Harlow, Wendy Rog – ers, and Nadine Michele Weidman for their insights into publishing. We thank Steve W. J. Kozlowski, Open Science and Methodology Chair, for his expertise on replication and publication ethics. For their valuable expertise on legal ref- erences , we thank David DeMatteo and Kirk Heilbrun from Drexel University.

We also thank the many APA staff and consultants who contributed their feedback and expertise. These staffwork across APA Publishing, the Education Directorate, the Executive Office, Information Technology Services, the Office of General Counsel, the Public Interest Directorate, and the Science Director- ate: Joe Albrecht, Emma All, Ida Audeh, David Becker, Cara Bevington, Martha Boenau, Marla Bonner, Liz Brace, Dan Brachtesende, Dan Brown, Ann Butler, Kerry Cahill, Brenda Carter, Lindsay Childress-Beatty, Alison Cody, Lyndsey Curtis, Chris Detzi, Katie Einhorn, A¿dy Elkington, Kristine Enderle, Elise Frasier, Rob Fredley, Dana Gittings, Hannah Greenbaum, Rachel Hamilton, Sue Harris, Beth Hatch, Annie Hill, Sue Houston, Shelby Jenkins, Robert Johnson, Lois Jones, Shontay Kincaid, Kristen Knight, Kristin Walker Kniss , Marla Koenigsknecht, David Kofalt, George Kowal, J.J. Larrea, Stefanie Lazer, Katy Lenz, Glynne Leonard, Kathryn Hyde Loomis, TimMeagher, Jennifer Meidinger, Claire Merenda, Neceo McKinley, Debra Naylor, David Nygren, Sangeeta Panicker, Amy Pearson, Steph Pollock, Lee Rennie, Natalie Robinson, Kathleen Sheedy, Jasper Simons, Rose Sokol-Chang, Ann Springer, Elizabeth Stern, Amber Story, Daniya Tamendarova, Nina Tandon, Ron Teeter, Karen Thomas, Jenna Vaccaro, Purvi Vashee, Chi Wang, Jason Wells, Sarah Wiederkehr, Angel Williams, Kimberly Williams, Aaron Wood, and Sherry Wynn.

Last, we thank our many users who contributed their feedback via emails, surveys, interviews, focus groups, and social media. Your insights into what worked for you and what more you needed from APA Style have been invalu- able in revising and creating content for this edition of the manual.

 

 

INTRODUCTION

Excellence in writing is critical for success in many academic and professional pursuits. APA Style is a set of guidelines for clear and precise scholarly com- munication that helps authors , both new and experienced, achieve excellence in writing. It is used by millions of people around the world in psychology and also in fields ranging from nursing to social work, communications to education, business to engineering, and other disciplines for the preparation of manuscripts for publication as well as for writing student papers, dissertations, and theses. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the authoritative resource for APA Style, and we are proud to deliver its seventh edition.

Why Use APA Style?

APA Style provides a foundation for effective scholarly communication because it helps authors present their ideas in a clear, concise, and organized manner. Uniformity and consistency enable readers to (a) focus on the ideas being pre- sented rather than formatting and (b) sean works quickly for key points, find- ings, and sources. Style guidelines encourage authors to fully disclose essential information and allow readers to dispense with minor distractions, such as inconsistencies or omissions in punctuation, capitalization, reference citations, and presentation of statistics.

When style works best, ideas flow logically, sources are credited appro- priately, and papers are organized predictably and consistently. People are described using language that affirms their worth and dignity. Authors plan for ethical compliance and report critical details of their research protocol to allow readers to evaluate findings and other researchers to potentially replicate the studies. Tables and figures present data in an engaging, consistent manner.

Whether you use APA Style for a single class or throughout your career, we encourage you to recognize the benefits of a conscientious approach to writing. Although the guidelines span many areas and take time and practice to learn, we hope that they provide a balance of directiveness and flexibility and will eventually become second nature.

xvii

 

 

xviii ~ INTRODUCTION

APA Style for Students

The Publication Manual has long been an authoritative source for scholarly writ- ing, and this edition provides more targeted guidance and support for students. AH students, no matter what career they pursue , can benefit from mastering scholarly writing as a way to develop their critical thinking skills and hone the precision and elarity of their communication.

Most guidelines in the Publication Manual can be applied to both student papers and professional manuscripts. The manual also has elements specifi- cally designed for students, ineluding a student title page; guidance on citing elassroom or intranet sources; and descriptions of common types of student papers such as annotated bibliographies, response papers, and dissertations and theses. Journal artiele reporting standards (JARS) are intended primarily for authors seeking publication but may be helpful for students completing advanced research projects.

Utility and Accessibility

We have created the seventh edition of the Publication Manual with the practical needs of users in mind. Within chapters, content is organized using numbered sections to help users quickly locate answers to their questions. This ease of navigability and depth of content mean that the manual can be used as both a reference work and a textbook on scholarly writing.

This edition promotes accessibility for everyone, ineluding users with dis- abilities. In consultation with accessibility experts, we ensured that the guide- lines support users who read and write works in APA Style through a variety of modalities, ineluding screen readers and other assistive technologies. For exam- pIe, we present a streamlined format for in-text citations intended to reduce the burden of both writing and reading them. We provide guidance on how to use adequate contrast in figures to meet Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (Web Accessibility Initiative, 2018). We also support the use of a variety of fonts and default settings in common word-processing programs, meaning that users need to make fewer adjustments to their systems to be ready to write in APA Style. Above all, our aim is to support the many ways in which people commu- nicate. We encourage authors to be conscientious and respectful toward both the people about whom they are writing and the readers who will benefit from their work.

What’s New in the Seventh Edition?

Brief descriptions of new and updated content are provided next on a chapter- by-chapter basis. For a more comprehensive overview of content changes, see the APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org).

Chapter 1: Scholarly Writing and Publishing PrincipIes

Chapter 1 addresses types of papers and ethical compliance.

• New guidance addresses quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods arti- eles as well as student papers, dissertations, and theses.

 

 

INTRODUCTION ~ xix

• Information onplanning for and ensuring ethical compliance reflects best practices.

• Guidance on data sharing, including in qualitative research, reflects open practice standards . .

Chapter 2: Paper Elements and Format

Chapter 2 is designed to help novice users of APA Style select, format , and orga- nize paper elements.

• The title page is updated for professionals, and a new student title page is provided.

• For all papers, the byline and affiliation format on the title page aligns with publishing standards.

• The author note includes more information, such as ORCID iDs, disclosure of conflicts of interest or lack thereof, and study registration information.

• The running head format has been simplified for professional authors and is not required for students.

• Font specifications are more flexible to address the need for accessibility.

• An updated heading format for Levels 3, 4, and S improves readability and assists authors who use the heading-styles feature of their word-processing programo

• Two new sample papers are provided: a professional paper and a student paper, with labels to show how specific elements appear when implemented.

Chapter 3: Journal Article Reporting Standards

Chapter 3 orients users to journal article reporting standards (JARS) and includes tables outlining standards for reporting quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research.

• JARS for quantitative research has been significantly expanded and updated (see Appelbaum et al., 2018; Cooper, 2018).

• The updated JARS now cover qualitative and mixed methods research (see Levitt, 2019; Levitt et al., 2018).

Chapter 4: Writing Style and Grammar

Chapter 4 provides guidance on writing style and grammar.

• The singular “they” is endorsed, consistent with inclusive usage.

• More detailed guidance helps writers avoid anthropomorphism.

Chapter 5: Bias-Free Language Guidelines Chapter S presents bias-free language guidelines to encourage authors to write about people with inclusivity and respecto

• Existing guidance on age, disability, gender, racial and ethnic identity, and sexual orientation has been updated to reflect best practices.

 

 

xx ~ INTRODUCTION

o New guidance is pravided on participation in research, socioeconomic sta- tus, and intersectionality.

Chapter 6: Mechanics of Style

Chapter 6 covers the mechanics of style, ineluding punctuation, capitalization, abbreviations, numbers, and statistics in texto

o Updated guidance answers a common question: Use one space after a period at the end of a sentence, unless an instructor or publisher requests otherwise.

o Formatting of linguistic examples has changed; quotation marks are now used araund examples, rather than italics, to promote accessibility.

o Expanded guidance is pravided on the capitalization of proper nouns, job titles, diseases and disorders , and more.

o Guidelines for the presentation of abbreviations address common questions, such as how to inelude a citation with an abbreviation.

o Guidelines for the presentation of numbers have been updated to be consis- tent throughout a work (e.g., there is no longer an exception for presenting numbers in an abstract).

o New guidance is given on how to write gene and protein names.

o Updated guidelines allow greater flexibility for lettered, numbered, and bul- leted lists.

Chapter 7: Tables and Figures

Chapter 7 presents guidance on creating tables and figures.

o More than 40 new sample tables and figures are presented, in dedicated sec- tions, covering a variety of research types and topics.

o The presentation of tables and figures in text is more flexible (either after the reference list on separate pages or embedded in the text).

o Formatting of tables and figures is parállel, ineluding consistent styles for numbers, titles, and notes.

o The accessible use of color in figures is addressed.

Chapter 8: Works Credited in the Text

Chapter 8 addresses appropriate levels of citation as well as plagiarism, self- plagiarism, and other unethical writing practices.

o In-text citations have been simplified; all in-text citations for works with three or more authors are shortened to the name of the first author plus “et al.” (except where this would create ambiguity).

o New guidance is provided on how to cite recorded or unrecorded Traditional Knowledge and Oral Traditions of Indigenous Peoples.

o Examples of paraphrasing demonstrate how to achieve elear attribution without overcitation.

o N ew guidance is provided on how to format quotations fram research partic- ipants.

 

 

INTR O DUCTI O N C\.Y xxi

Chapter 9: Reference List

Chapter 9 examines the four elements of a reference list entry (autho r, date , title, and source).

• The numbei- of authors ineluded in a r eference entry has changed; up to 20 authors are now ineluded before names are omitted with an ellipsis.

• The presentation of digital object identifiers (DOIs) and URLs.has been stan- dardized . Both are presented as hyperlinks ; the label “DOI :” is no longer used, and the words “Retrieved from” are used only when a retrieval date is also needed.

• Updated guidance explains when to inelude DOIs and URLs for works re- trieved fram most academic research databases as well as from proprietary databases such as ERIe or UpToDate.

• New formatting guidance is pravided for annotated bibliographies.

Chapter 10: Reference Examples

Chapter 10 provides more than 100 examples of APA Style references, each with accompanying parenthetical and narrative in-text citations.

• Templates are provided for every reference category.

• References are streamlined; for example , journal artiele references always in- elude the issue number, and book references now omit the publisher location.

• Audiovisual materials receive expanded coverage, with new examples for YouTube videos, PowerPoint slides and lecture notes, TED Talks, and more.

• Social media, webpages, and websites are addressed in new categories. For consistency and ease of formatting, blogs and other online platforms that publish artieles are part of the periodicals category.

Chapter 11: Legal References

Chapter 11 presents expanded and updated legal reference examples.

• Guidelines fram The Blueboolc: A Uniform System oi Citation continue to be the foundation for APA Style legal references, with sorne modifications.

• New, relevant legal reference examples are provided (e.g., the Every Student Succeeds Act).

Chapter 12: Publication Process

Chapter 12 provides guidance on the publication process.

• New content helps early career researchers adapt a dissertation or thesis into a journal artiele or artieles , select a journal for publication, avoid predatory or deceptive publishers , and navigate journal submission.

• Improved guidance on the journal publication pracess reflects current pra- ces ses and policies authors need to be aware of when preparing a manuscript for submission.

• New guidance addresses how authors can share and promote their work fol- lowing publication.

 

 

xxii ~ INTRODUCTION

APA Style Online

The APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org) is the premier and authorita- tive online destination for APA Style. In addition to numerous free resources and instructional aids, it contains supplemental content that is referred to through- out the manual, including additional reference examples, sample papers, and guidance on using color effectively and accessibly in figures.

The JARS website (https://apastyle.apa.org/jars) contains the full repository of information about journal article reporting standards for a wide range of research designs; it is freely available to complement the orienting information in Chapter 3.

The APA Style blog (https://apastyle.apa.org/blog) and related social media accounts will continue to answer questions about and share insights into APA Style with the publication of the seventh edition, providing authoritative con- tent from members ofthe APA Style team.

Academic Writer (https://digitallearning.apa.org/academic-writer) is APA’s cloud-based tool for teaching and learning effective writing. Developed by the creators of APA Style , this product helps both student and professional authors compose research papers and master the application of seventh-edition APA Style.

Notes to Users

The Publication Manual refers to numerous products and services that are not affiliated with the American Psychological Association but that our readers may encounter or use during the process of research, writing, and publication. The trademarks referenced in the Publication Manual are the property of their respective owners. The inclusion of non-APA products is for reference only and should not be construed as an endorsement of or affiliation between APA and the owners of these products and their respective brands.

Finally, sorne eagle-eyed users have asked why every aspect of APA Style is not applied throughout this manual. The manual is a published work, whereas the guidelines for APA Style are meant to be applied to manuscripts being sub- mitted for publication or to student papers. Considerations for published works such as this book (e.g., typesetting, line spacing, length, fonts , use of color, mar- gins) differ from those of draft manuscripts or student papers and thus necessi- tate deviations from APA Style formatting . Also, in this manual- in which we are writing about writing-it is often necessary to distinguish between explanatory text and examples through the use of font , color, and other design elements. Wherever possible, however, we have endeavored to demonstrate APA Style while writing about it and to present the information in a way that is accessible for our many users around the world.

 

 

 

Contents

Types of Articles and Papers 1.1 Ouantitative Articles 4 1.2 Oualitative Articles 5 1.3 Mixed Methods Articles 6 1.4 Replication Articles 6 1.5 Ouantitative and Oualitative Meta-Analyses 7 1.6 Literature Review Articles 8 1.7 Theoretical Articles 8 1.8 Methodological Articles 8 1.9 Other Types of Articles 9

1.10 Student Papers, Dissertations, and Theses 9

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ETHICAL, LEGAL, ANO PROFESSIONAL STANOAROS IN PUBLlSHING 11

Ensuring the Accuracy of Scientific Findings 11 1.11 Planning for Ethical Compliance 11 1.12 Ethical and Accurate Reporting of Research Results 12 1.13 Errors, Corrections, and Retractions After Publication 13 1.14 Data Retention and Sharing 13 1.15 Additional Data-Sharing Considerations for Oualitative Research 16 1.16 Duplicate and Piecemeal Publication of Data 17 1.17 Implications of Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism 21

Proteding the Rights and Welfare of Research Participants 21 and Subjeds 1.18 Rights and Welfare of Research Participants and Subjects 21 1.19 Protecting Confidentiality 22 1.20 Conflict of Interest 23

Proteding Intelledual Property Rights 24 1.21 Publication Credit 24 1.22 Order of Authors 25 1.23 Authors’ Intellectual Property Rights During Manuscript Review 25 1.24 Authors’ Copyright on Unpublished Manuscripts 26 1.25 Ethical Compliance Checklist 26

 

 

1 SCHOLARLY WRITING ANO

PUBLISHING PRINCIPLES

Research is complete only when scholars share their results or findings with the scientific community. Although researchers may post articles on scholarly collaboration sites or preprint servers or share them informally by email or in person, the most widely accepted medium for formal scholarly communication continues to be the published article in a peer-reviewed, scientific journal. Sci- entific journals contain our primary research literature and thus serve as repos- itories of the accumulated knowledge of a field.

Students are also important members of the scholarly community. Although most student work is not formally published, by writing papers students engage in critical thinking, thoughtful self-reflection, and scientific inquiry and thereby prepare to make unique contributions to the repository of knowledge. There- fore, student writing deserves the same level of care and attention to detail as that given to professional writing.

In this chapter, we provide important principIes that professional and stu- dent authors should consider before writing their paper or, in many cases, before embarking on a research study. We begin with overviews of the differ- ent types of articles and papers professional and student authors write. This is followed by a discussion of ethical, legal, and professional standards in pub- lishing that all authors of scholarly work, regardless of the type of paper they are writing or their level of experience, must be mindful of and abide by. For example, research conducted with human participants or nonhuman animal subjects must be approved by an institutional review board (IRE), institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC), or another ethical committee. Simi- larly, an author writing about human participants must protect their confiden- tiality while following best practices for data sharing. Moreover, any written work, from a course paper to a published manuscript, should represent an orig- inal con tribu ti o n and include appropriate citations to the work of others. Thus, scholarly writing and publishing, in all forms, are inherendy embedded in and guided by an ethical contexto

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4 ~ SCHOLARLY WRITING AND PUBLlSHING PRINCIPLES

Types of Articles and Papers

Many types of articles are published in scientific journals, including quantita- tive, qualitative, and mixed methods empirical articles and replications. These journal articles report primary, or original, research-that is, research that has not been previously forinally published. Theoretical articles and methodological articles do not present research but describe advancements in theories or meth- ods. Journal articles that review or synthesize findings from primary research include literature reviews and quantitative and qualitative meta-analyses. By understanding the characteristics of different types of articles and the types of information they most efficiently convey, you will be able to select an article type that fits your research and to follow the appropriate journal article report- ing standard s (discussed in Chapter 3). Students may write the same kinds of articles that are published in journals, as well as student papers (including course assignments, dissertations, and theses) not intended for publication in ajournal (see Section 1.10). Sample papers are included at the end of Chapter 2 and on the APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org).

1.1 Quantitative Articles In quantitative articles, authors report original, empirical, quantitative research. Quantitative research refers to a set of approaches commonly used in the behav- ioral and social sciences and related fields in which the observed outcomes are numerically represented. The results of these studies are typically analyzed using methods (statistics, data analyses, and modeling techniques) that rely on the numerical properties of the measurement system. Quantitative research studies use a variety of experimental designs and a range of analytic tech- niques. Sorne quantitative articles present novel hypotheses and data analyses not considered or addressed in previous reports of related data. Within the article, authors should describe elements of their study in the first person (see Section 4.16). Researchers who used a quantitative approach should follow the quantitative journal article reporting standard s to report their findings (see Sections 3.5-3.12).

Quantitative articles typically include distinct sections that reflect the stages of the research process and appear in the following sequence:

• Introduction: a statement of the purpose of the investigation, a review of the background literature, and an explicit statement of the hypotheses being explored (see Section 3.4)

• Method: a full description of each step of the investigation, including details about the material s used and the procedures followed (which should be sufficient to enable replication), a full statement of the research design, statements on the protection of human participants or nonhuman animal subjects and informed consent, and a description (in words and/or a figure) of the flow of participants through the study (see Section 3.6)

• Results: data analysis and a report ofthe findings (see Section 3.7)

• Discussion: a summary of the study, including any interpretation, limita- tions, and implications of the results (see Section 3.8)

Reports of Multiple Studies. Authors of quantitative articles often report the findings of several conceptually linked studies in one manuscript. These authors

 

 

Types of Articles and Pape rs

should make the rationale , logic, order, and method of each study clear to read- ers. Headings should be used to label each study- for instance, “Experiment 1,” “Experiment 2;’ and so forth. This format organizes the sections and makes them easier to discuss in the manuscript or in later research articles : Method and Results subsections can appear under each study heading. If appropriate, the authors can include ashort subsection titled “Discussion” in which they explore the implications of the results of each study, or they can combine the discussion with the description of results under a heading such as “Results and Discussion.” Authors should always include a comprehensive general discussion of all the studies at the end of the article, which often has the heading “General Discussion.”

1.2 Qualitative Articles

In qualitative articles, authors report original, empirical, qualitative research. Qualitative research refers to scientific practices that are used to generate knowl- edge about human experience and/or action, including social processes. Quali- tative approaches tend to share four sets of characteristics:

• Researchers analyze data consisting of naturallanguage (i.e., words), research- er observations (e.g. , social interactions), and/or participants’ expressions (e.g., artistic presentations) rather than collecting numerical data and conducting mathematical analyses. Reports tend to show the development of qualita- tive findings using naturallanguage (although numbers may be used adjunc- tively in describing or exploring these findings).

• Researchers often use an iterative process of analysis in which they reexam- ine developing findings in light of continued data analysis and refine the initial findings. In this way, the process of analysis is self-correcting and can produce original knowledge.

• Researchers recursively combine inquiry with methods that require research- ers’ reflexivity about how their own perspectives might support or impair the research process and thus how their methods should best be enacted.

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• Researchers tend to study experiences and actions whose meaning may shift and evolve; therefore, they tend to view their findings as being situated within place and time rather than seeking to develop laws that are expected to remain stable regardless of contexto

Researchers who used a qualitative approach should follow the qualitative jour- nal article reporting standards to report their findings (see Sections 3.13- 3.17).

Case Studies and OtherTypes of Qualitative Articles. A variety of methods are reported in qualitative articles, and the structure of qualitative articles varies depending on the nature of the study. For example, in case studies researchers report analyses or observations obtained while working closely with an indi- vidual, group, community, or organization. Case studies illustrate a problem in depth; indicate a means for solving a problem; and/or shed light on needed research, clinical applications, or theoretical matters. Qualitative articles also describe studies with multiple participants, groups, communities, or organiza- tions that identify commonalities and/or differences across these entities. Such research can have a systemic focus, examining the ways in which social pro- cesses, actions, or discourses are structured.

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SCHOLARLY WRITING AND PUBLlSHING PRINCIPLES

Regardless of the qualitative research approaches they use , when writing re- ports, authors should carefully consider the balance between providing import- ant illustrative material and using confidential participant data responsibly (see Sections 1.18-1.19 for more on confidentiality; see also Section 1.15). Qualitative reports may be organized thematically or chronologically and are typically pre- sented in a reflexive , first-person style, detailing the ways in which the research- ers arrived at questions, methods, findings, and considerations for the field .

1.3 Mixed Methods Articles In mixed methods articles, authors report research combining qualitative and quantitative empirical approaches. Mixed methods research should not be con- fused with mixed models research, which is a quantitative procedure, or with multi- methods research, which entails using multiple methods from the same approach. Mixed methods research involves the following:

• describing the philosophical assumptions or theoretical models used to in- form the study design (Creswell, 2015);

• describing the distinct methodologies, research designs, and procedures in relation to the study goals;

• collecting and analyzing both qualitative and quantitative data in response to research aims, questions, or hypotheses; and

• integrating the findings from the two methodologies intentionally to gener- ate new insights.

The basic assumption of a mixed methods approach is that the combined qual- itative findings and quantitative results lead to additional insights not gleaned from the qualitative or quantitative findings alone (Creswell, 2015; Greene, 2007; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010). Because there are many ways to design a mixed methods study, the structure of mixed methods articles varies depending on the specific nature of the study and the balance between the two methodologies. Researchers who used a mixed methods approach should follow the mixed meth- ods journal article reporting standards to report their findings (see Section 3.18).

1.4 Replication Articles In replication articles, authors report the results of work intended to verify or reproduce findings from previous investigations. The aim of a replication study is to examine whether the conclusions from an earlier study remain the same or similar over variations in the conduct of the original study. There are internal and external forms of replication; only external replications are addressed in APA journal article reporting standards (see Section 3.10). An external replication occurs when researchers obtain a new sample and duplicate, insofar as is possi- ble or desirable, the features of the original study being replicated. New design, measures, and/or data-analysis methods can also be used to test whether a find- ing has generality beyond the particular situation studied in the original work, but any such variations must be clearly specified in the reporto

Researchers conducting an external replication should report sufficient infor- mation to allow readers to determine whether the study was a direct (exact, lit- eral) replication, approximate replication, or conceptual (construct) replication. In a direct replication, researchers repeat a study collecting data from a new sam- pIe in a way that duplicates as far as possible the conditions of the earlier study.