Research Design Discussions

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Please read.. I attached 4 discussions- Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4 All need to be done on separate page with the this book as the reference.

Edmonds, W. A., & Kennedy, T. D. (2017). An applied guide to research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods (2nd ed).

Exercise 1 – Research Design Validity

Discuss the importance of validity and research design.

Next, choose one type of validity (internal, external, construct, or statistical conclusion) and discuss its relevance to experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental research.

 

 

Exercise 2 – Comparison Groups

Comparison groups are one of the important elements to the scientific control of a research design.

Choose one type of comparison group from the list provided in the book and expand upon how the inclusion of this type of comparison group would improve the overall validity of the findings.

 

Exercise 3 – Control Techniques

Control is an important element in any type of research.

Considering experimental research, come up with a hypothetical research scenario and apply each of the five types of control to the scenario. Use specific examples to illustrate your point.

 

 

Exercise 4 – Establishing Cause and Effect

No unread replies.No replies.

What are the major differences between experimental, quasi experimental, and non-experimental research?

Discuss the three major conditions to meet cause and effect (be sure to review your text for further information). Provide a typical experimental “weakness” that wouldn’t allow a researcher to determine cause and effect.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 1 A Primer of the Scientific Method and Relevant Components

The primary objective of this book is to help researchers understand and select appropriate designs for their investigations within the field, lab, or virtual environment. Lacking a proper conceptualization of a research design makes it difficult to apply an appropriate design based on the research question(s) or stated hypotheses. Implementing a flawed or inappropriate design will unequivocally lead to spurious, meaningless, or invalid results. Again, the concept of validity cannot be emphasized enough when conducting research. Validity maintains many facets (e.g., statistical validity or validity pertaining to psychometric properties of instrumentation), operates on a continuum, and deserves equal attention at each level of the research process. Aspects of validity are discussed later in this chapter. Nonetheless, the research question, hypothesis, objective, or aim is the primary step for the selection of a research design.

The purpose of a research design is to provide a conceptual framework that will allow the researcher to answer specific research questions while using sound principles of scientific inquiry. The concept behind research designs is intuitively straightforward, but applying these designs in real-life situations can be complex. More specifically, researchers face the challenge of (a) manipulating (or exploring) the social systems of interest, (b) using measurement tools (or data collection techniques) that maintain adequate levels of validity and reliability, and (c) controlling the interrelationship between multiple variables or indicating emerging themes that can lead to error in the form of confounding effects in the results. Therefore, utilizing and following the tenets of a sound research design is one of the most fundamental aspects of the scientific method. Put simply, the research design is the structure of investigation, conceived so as to obtain the “answer” to research questions or hypotheses.

The Scientific Method

All researchers who attempt to formulate conclusions from a particular path of inquiry use aspects of the scientific method. The presentation of the scientific method and how it is interpreted can vary from field to field and method (qualitative) to method (quantitative), but the general premise is not altered. Although there are many ways or avenues to “knowing,” such as sources from authorities or basic common sense, the sound application of the scientific method allows researchers to reveal valid findings based on a series of systematic steps. Within the social sciences, the general steps include the following: (a) state the problem, (b) formulate the hypothesis, (c) design the experiment, (d) make observations, (e) interpret data, (f) draw conclusions, and (g) accept or reject the hypothesis. All research in quantitative methods, from experimental to nonexperimental, should employ the steps of the scientific method in an attempt to produce reliable and valid results.

The scientific method can be likened to an association of techniques rather than an exact formula; therefore, we expand the steps as a means to be more specific and relevant for research in education and the social sciences. As seen in Figure 1.1, these steps include the following: (a) identify a research problem, (b) establish the theoretical framework, (c) indicate the purpose and research questions (or hypotheses), (d) develop the methodology, (e) collect the data, (f) analyze and interpret the data, and (g) report the results. This book targets the critical component of the scientific method, referred to in Figure 1.1 as Design the Study, which is the point in the process when the appropriate research design is selected. We do not focus on prior aspects of the scientific method or any steps that come after the Design the Study step, including procedures for conducting literature reviews, developing research questions, or discussions on the nature of knowledge, epistemology, ontology, and worldviews. Specifically, this book focuses on the conceptualization, selection, and application of common research designs in the field of education and the social and behavioral sciences.

Again, although the general premise is the same, the scientific method is known to slightly vary from each field of inquiry (and type of method). The technique presented here may not exactly follow the logic required for research using qualitative methods; however, the conceptualization of research designs remains the same. We refer the reader to Jaccard and Jacoby (2010) for a review on the various scientific approaches associated with qualitative methods, such as emergent- and discovery-oriented frameworks.

Figure 1.1 The Scientific Method

Figure 1

Validity and Research Designs

The overarching goal of research is to reach valid outcomes based upon the appropriate application of the scientific method. In reference to

Independent and Dependent Variables

In simple terms, the independent variable (IV) is the variable that is manipulated (i.e., controlled) by the researcher as a means to test its impact on the dependent variable, otherwise known as the treatment effect. In the classical experimental study, the IV is the treatment, program, or intervention. For example, in a psychology-based study, the IV can be a cognitive-behavioral intervention; the intervention is manipulated by the researcher, who controls the frequency and intensity of the therapy on the subject. In a pharmaceutical study, the IV would typically be a treatment pill, and in agriculture the treatment often is fertilizer. In regard to experimental research, the IVs are always manipulated (controlled) based on the appropriate theoretical tenets that posit the association between the IV and the dependent variable.

Statistical software packages (e.g., SPSS) refer to the IV differently. For instance, the IV for the analysis of variance (ANOVA) in SPSS is the “breakdown” variable and is called a factor. The IV is represented as levels in the analysis (i.e., the treatment group is Level 1, and the control group is Level 2). For nonexperimental research that uses regression analysis, the IV is referred to as the predictor variable. In research that applies control in the form of statistical procedures to variables that were not or cannot be manipulated, the IVs are sometimes referred to as quasi- or alternate independent variables. These variables are typically demographic variables, such as gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. As a reminder, in nonexperimental research the IV (or predictor) is not manipulated whether it is a categorical variable such as hair color or a continuous variable such as intelligence. The only form of control that is exhibited on these types of variables is that of statistical procedures. Manipulation and elimination do not apply (see types of control later in the chapter).

The dependent variable (DV) is simply the outcome variable, and its variability is a function of IV and its impact on it (i.e., treatment effect). For example, what is the impact of the cognitive-behavioral intervention on psychological well-being? In this research question, the DV is psychological well-being. In regard to nonexperimental research, the IVs are not manipulated, and the IVs are referred to as predictors and the DVs are criterion variables. During the development of research questions, it is critical to first define the DV conceptually, then define it operationally.

A conceptual definition is a critical element to the research process and involves scientifically defining the construct so it can be systematically measured. The conceptual definition is considered to be the (scientific) textbook definition. The construct must then be operationally defined to model the conceptual definition.

An operational definition is the actual method, tool, or technique that indicates how the construct will be measured (see Figure 1.2).

Consider the following example research question: What is the relationship between Emotional Intelligence and conventional Academic Performance?

Figure 1.2 Conceptual and Operational Definitions

Figure 2

Internal Validity

Internal validity is the extent to which the outcome was based on the independent variable (i.e., the treatment), as opposed to extraneous or unaccounted-for variables. Specifically, internal validity has to do with causal inferences—hence, the reason why it does not apply to nonexperimental research. The goal of nonexperimental research is to describe phenomena or to explain or predict the relationship between variables, not to infer causation (although there are circumstances when cause and effect can be inferred from nonexperimental research, and this is discussed later in this book). The identification of any explanation that could be responsible for an outcome (effect) outside of the independent variable (cause) is considered to be a threat. The most common threats to internal validity seen in education and the social and behavioral sciences are detailed in Table 1.1. It should be noted that many texts do not indentify sequencing effects in the common lists of threats; however, it is placed here, as it is a primary threat in repeated-measures approaches.

Table 3

 

Construct Validity

Construct validity refers to the extent a generalization can be made from the operationalization (i.e., the scientific measurement) of the theoretical construct back to the conceptual basis responsible for the change in the outcome. Again, although the list of threats to construct validity seen in Table 1.3 are defined to imply issues regarding cause-effect relations, the premise of construct validity should apply to all types of research. Some authors categorize some of these threats as social threats to internal validity, and some authors simply categorize some of the threats listed in Table 1.3 as threats to internal validity. The categorization of these threats can be debated, but the premise of the threats to validity cannot be argued (i.e., a violation of construct validity affects the overall validity of the study in the same way as a violation of internal validity).

 

Statistical Conclusion Validity

Statistical conclusion validity is the extent to which the statistical covariation (relationship) between the treatment and the outcome is accurate. Specifically, the statistical inferences regarding statistical conclusion validity has to do with the ability with which one can detect the relationship between the treatment and outcome, as well as determine the strength of the relationship between the two. As seen in Table 1.4, the most notable threats to statistical conclusion validity are outlined. Violating a threat to statistical conclusion validity typically will result in the overestimation or underestimation of the relationship between the treatment and outcome in experimental research. A violation can also result in the overestimation or underestimation of the explained or predicted relationships between variables as seen in nonexperimental research.

 

Design Logic

The overarching objective of a research design is to provide a framework from which specific research questions or hypotheses can be answered while using the scientific method. The concept of a research design and its structure is, at face value, rather simplistic. However, complexities arise when researchers apply research designs within social science paradigms. These include, but are not limited to, logistical issues, lack of control over certain variables, psychometric issues, and theoretical frameworks that are not well developed. In addition, with regard to statistical conclusion validity, a researcher can apply sound principles of scientific inquiry while applying an appropriate research design but may compromise the findings with inappropriate data collection strategies, faulty or “bad” data, or misdirected statistical analyses. Shadish and colleagues (2002) emphasized the importance of structural design features and that researchers should focus on the theory of design logic as the most important feature in determining valid outcomes (or testing causal propositions). The logic of research designs is ultimately embedded within the scientific method, and applying the principles of sound scientific inquiry within this phase is of the utmost importance and the primary focus of this guide.

Control

Control is an important element to securing the validity of research designs within quantitative methods (i.e., experimental, quasi-experimental, and nonexperimental research). However, within qualitative methods, behavior is generally studied as it occurs naturally with no manipulation or control. Control refers to the concept of holding variables constant or systematically varying the conditions of variables based on theoretical considerations as a means to minimize the influence of unwanted variables (i.e., extraneous variables). Control can be applied actively within quantitative methods through (a) manipulation, (b) elimination, (c) inclusion, (d) group or condition assignment, or (e) statistical procedures.

Manipulation.

Manipulation is applied by manipulating (i.e., controlling) the independent variable(s). For example, a researcher can manipulate a behavioral intervention by systematically applying and removing the intervention or by controlling the frequency and duration of the application (see section on independent variables).

Elimination.

Elimination is conducted when a researcher holds a variable or converts it to a constant. If, for example, a researcher ensures the temperature in a lab is set exactly to 76° Fahrenheit for both conditions in a biofeedback study, then the variable of temperature is eliminated as a factor because it is held as a constant.

Inclusion.

Inclusion refers to the addition of an extraneous variable into the design to test its affect on the outcome (i.e., dependent variable). For example, a researcher can include both males and females into a factorial design to examine the independent effects gender has on the outcome. Inclusion can also refer to the addition of a control or comparison group within the research design.

Group assignment.

Group assignment is another major form of control (see more on group and condition assignments later). For the between-subjects approach, a researcher can exercise control through random assignment, using a matching technique, or applying a cutoff score as means to assign participants to conditions. For the repeated-measures approach, control is exhibited when the researcher employs the technique of counterbalancing to variably expose each group or individual to all the levels of the independent variable.

Statistical procedures.

Statistical procedures are exhibited on variables, for example, by systematically deleting, combining, or not including cases and/or variables (i.e., removing outliers) within the analysis. This is part of the data-screening process as well. As illustrated in Table 1.5, all of the major forms of control can be applied in the application of designs for experimental and quasi-experimental research. The only form of control that can be applied to nonexperimental research is statistical control.

 

 

Comparison and Control Groups

The group that does not receive the actual treatment, or intervention, is typically designated as the control group. Control groups fall under the group or condition assignment aspect of control. Control groups are comparison groups and are primarily used to address threats to internal validity such as history, maturation, selection, and testing. A comparison group refers to the group or groups that are not part of the primary focus of the investigation but allow the researcher to draw certain conclusions and strengthen aspects of internal validity. There are several distinctions and variations of the control group that should be clarified.

· Control group. The control group, also known as the no-contact control, receives no treatment and no interaction.

· Attention control group. The attention control group, also known as the attention-placebo, receives attention in the form of a pseudo-intervention to control for reactivity to assessment (i.e., the participant’s awareness of being studied may influence the outcome).

· Nonrandomly assigned control group. The nonrandomly assigned control is used when a no-treatment control group cannot be created through random assignment.

· Wait-list control group. The wait-list control group is withheld from the treatment for a certain period of time, then the treatment is provided. The time in which the treatment is provided is based on theoretical tenets and on the pretest and posttest assessment of the original treatment group.

· Historical control group. Historical control is a control group that is chosen from a group of participants who were observed at some time in the past or for whom data are available through archival records, sometimes referred to as cohort controls (i.e., a homogenous successive group) and useful in quasi-experimental research.

Sampling Strategies

Oaks, CA: Sage.

I also copy the chapter readings so you can have because this professor wrote this book and he knows if we are messing around with content.

Journal Critique Article Help

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EDUC 632

Journal Article Critique Instructions

1. Choose 2 articles from professional journals of education (scholarly and/or peer-reviewed articles only). You must choose articles related to the language arts topic you selected from the course textbook. This topic must be clearly included in your title on the title page. Articles must be published within the last 5 years and must be more than 5 pages.

2. Your review must be written in your words and include 1–2 scholarly citations per paragraph in current APA format, except in the reflective section where none are included. Do not over quote from the article. Instead, summarize and paraphrase.

3. Write a separate critique for each journal article. However, the assignment will be submitted as 1 Microsoft Word document. The content of the paper, including 2 critiques, must be 4–5 pages. In addition to the content, make sure to include a title and reference page.

4. Organize and format each critique with the headings and subheadings outlined below. Do not write the questions. You must write your critiques with well-formed paragraphs that flow logically from one topic to the next.

5. Format the paper in current APA, with the exception of the reflection section, which may include first person (I, me, my, etc.)

6. Include a reference page formatted in the most current APA edition.

 

Topic

A. Briefly describe the topic of the journal article (hint: it is usually in the article’s title).

B. Identify the major and minor objectives of the article as well.

C. Identify and define the important concepts focused on by the author. Are the definitions clear, in your opinion?

Main Ideas

A. Summarize the article’s content. In doing so, what is the author’s major argument?

B. What are the supporting arguments?

C. Are the ideas clearly presented?

Conclusions

A. What conclusions does the author(s) make?

Reflection

A. In your opinion, does the data support the conclusions being made by the author?

B. In your opinion, are the results thought provoking?

C. In your opinion, what could be done to improve the research?

D. What was the most important thing you learned by reading and critiquing this article?

 

Be sure to review the criteria on the Journal Article Critique Grading Rubric before beginning this assignment.

 

 

Submit this assignment by 11:59 p.m. (ET) on Sunday of Module/Week 3.

Reflection On INTERCULTURAL CONFLICT

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Structure:

Your reflection should have a title.

It should introduce and briefly explain one or two concepts from the chapter (e.g. ethnocentrism; high context; cultural shock…) not more than half of a page. After you introduce the concept, you analyze if it looking into how you may have seen it in your life and how providing concrete examples from your life or that of other people you know (e.g. gender roles, as I was growing up I was taught that…). If you disagree with the concept (e.g. the chapter says that Greek culture is high context in general and you disagree) you may provide arguments why you disagree. Again, if you felt that you need to discuss more than one concept, you may discuss two but not more than two. Chapter attached

Chapter10 [] IntercutturatConfhct 337

1. Define intelcultural conflict .

2. Define facework and identify three plimary facewo& strategies

3. List and define the five primaly and three secondary styles of conflict communication

4. Identify and discuss the conflict styles preferred by individuahstic and collectivistic cultures

5. Idenufy and discuss the conflict styles preferred by high- versus low-context cultures

6. Explain and apply the components of the contingency model of cross-cultural conflict

Imagine yourself m the following situation:

INTERCULTURAL CONFLICT

Mahatma Gandhi

Honest disagreement Js often a good sign of progress.

Aklra Abe is an internauonal exchange student from Japan who lives down the hall from you m your dorm. You have interacted with Aklra only occasionally and do not know him very well. This morning, Akira approached you to compiam that you frequently play your music so loudly that he Is unable to study or sleep. Aklra then asked if you would please stop playing your music so loudly.

What would you do m this situation? How would you resolve this conflict? Would you comply with Akira’s request? Would you argue with Akira?

Conflict, such as the one depicted above, is an inevitable part of living in a society with others. All types of human relationships–from strangers to acquaintances to intimates– experience conflict. Communication plays a paradoxical role in most conflicts because communicauon is required both to instigate conflict and to resolve it. Unfortunately, conflict is the source of much relational stress and dissolution; fortunately, the successful resolution of conflict is one of the strongest and most consistent predictors of relational sausfaction. Hence, an understanding of conflict and how to resolve it is an essential part of becoming a competent communicator, especially in your relationships with persons from other cultures.

DEFINITION OF INTERCULTURAL CONFLICT In the past 30 years, a growing body of theory and iesearch has emerged m the intercultural communication literature regarding the nature of intercultural conflict Much of this research Is based on the work of Stella Tmg-Toomey and John Oetzel) They define intercultural conflict as

the implicit ot exphcit emotional struggle between persons of different cultural commumties over perceived ol actual incompatibility of cultural ideologies and values, situational norms, goals, face-orientations, scarce resources, styles/processes,

)ntercu[tura[

conftlct The fmpLiclt

or explicit emotional

struggle between persons of different cultures over

perceived or actual

incompatibility of cultural Ideologies and values, sltuatmnal.

norms, goals, face onentatmns, scarce

resources, styles/

processes, and/or outcomes In a face-

to-face context

 

 

338 Chapter 10 m IntercuLtural.ConflictIntercultural. Communication

and/or outcomes in a face-to-face (oi mediated) context within a soclohistorical embedded system.2

Well-known lntercultmal communication scholai Young Yun Kun has developed a model of lntmcuhural conflict. Klm argues that lntelcultulal conflmt occuis at thiee interdependent and interrelated levels, mctudmg a mlclo oi individual level, an lnteime&aiy level; and a macro or societal level (see Figure 10.1).4

The miclo, ot zndividual, level of mteicultural conflmt refels to the unique attitudes, dispositions, and beliefs that each individual bnngs to the conflmt. According to Kim’s model, cognitive simpllcity/rlgl&ty refels to the degiee of mflexlbihty in the way individuals think about people fiom dlffelent cultules. Rigid, simphstic thinking includes gloss categmizanon and stereotyping (e.g., all Ameiicans ale rude, all Japanese are qmet). In-group bins lefers to the degree to which the individual is ethnocenuic

Recall from Chapter 1 that ethnocenmsm is defined as viewing one’s own group as being at the centei of evewthmg and using the standards of one’s own gloup to measure or gauge the woith of all other gioups. Insecuiity/fiustranon lefers to the degree to which the mdwidual has a high level of uncertainty about, and feat of, out-group members (e.g., they will steal our jobs) Divergent behavmr lefeis to the behavloial pattems of the individual that clearly dljÿerentlate and distance him oi her from out-group membeis For example, obviously &ffeient speech patterns or accents may ostensibly sepaiate groups from one anothei Duimg conflmt, people will often exaggerate their mannmisms and speech to accentuate then differences compared with out-gioups Because you ate upset about

Kim’s Model of IntercuLturaL ConfLict

Macro Level

° History of subjugation , Ideological or structural mequahties = Minority group strength

Intermediary Level

* Segregation/contact , Intergroup salience , Status discrepancy

Micro Level

° Cognitive simphclty/rlgtdlty • In-group bias

= Insecunty/frustratton • Dwergent behaviors

SOURCE Based on Kim, Y Y [1989] Interethnm Confl.Jct An InterdlscJphnary Overwew In J B Gÿttier {Ed 1, Annual Review of Conflict Knowledge and Conflict Resolution {Vot 1] New York GarLand, KLm, Y Y (19901 Explaining Interethmc Conflict An Interdisciplinary Overwew Paper presented at the annual convention of the Speech Comrnunlcatlon Assoctahon Chicago, IL

Micro Levelÿ

Akira’s complaint, you may intentionally turn up the volume on youi music. Imagine two employees worldng together, each fiom a different cultme, who have gross stereotypes of each other, are both ethnocentric, fear each other, and have highly divergent behavioral patterns Kim’s model predicts that such a situation is likely to engender conflict.5

The mtermedmry level of intercultural conflict refers to the actual location and context of the conflict. Some envuonments (e.g., neighborhoods, school, work) may be more likely than others to facilitate conflmt. Segregation and contact refer to the extent to whmh the individuals’ cultmal groups interact on a daily basis. Perhaps the most basic condition for intercultural conflict is contact between diverse cultures or ethnicitles on a day-to-day basis. Segregated wotkplaces or schools do not allow for much interaction, and components at the individual level (e.g, cognitive rigidity, m-group bias) tend to escalate to intolerable levels that facilitate intercultural conflmt. Intergroup salience refels to the observable physical and social differences between the confllcung mdwiduals. Such cultural markets include distinct physical and behavioral differences, such as race, language, and speech patterns.

Undocumented Students

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Undocumented Students

The number of undocumented children in the U.S. is increasing in numbers and educational leaders must understand how to support their educational success by addressing their unique challenges. For this discussion, you will focus on the case study “In All Fairness” in Chapter 8. This case study focuses on the controversy surrounding legal and illegal immigrant families, children and public school attendance, as well as the concept of silent tracking.

For this discussion, you will address the assigned questions based on your last name. For example, Jane Doe would respond to the first set of questions. Use the text and one outside source to support your response to the questions (this can also be your shared resource).

 

LAST NAME BEGIN WITH (W)

Student’s Last Name

Questions

Begins with A-M

If Alejandro came back to the school with a birth certificate (foreign), no social security card, and a letter from the local homeless shelter as proof of residence…

  1. How would you explain to the office staff that he should be admitted?
  2. What laws support your actions?
  3. What resource(s) could the school provide to support this family?
  4. What is one resource that you could share with your peers to support best practices in working with undocumented children and families?

Begins with N-Z

Regarding the case of Michael…

  1. Why would counselors place Michael in lower track classes even after he requested that he be placed in college prep courses?
  2. Is this a form of discrimination?
  3. Why would these types of incidents be difficult to confront?
  4. What is one resource that you could share with your peers to support best practices working with students of color who may be victims of silent tracking?

*Resources may be from yearly conferences, websites, leaders in the field, peer-reviewed journal articles, blogs, etc., that support the issue at hand. Through this collaborative effort, you will be able to add resources from multiple perspectives that you can later include in your final assignment. Be sure to include any relevant information including the full APA reference entry and a brief description of how the resource supports leaders/administrators in that issue.

THIS MIGHT HELP WITH THE DISCUSSION

 

Capatosto, K. (2015). Strategies for addressing implicit bias in early childhood education (Links to an external site.). Retrieved from http://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/implicit-bias-strategies.pdf

  • This article focuses on implicit biases in early education and may help you in your journal for this week..
    Accessibility Statement does not exist.
    Privacy Policy does not exist.Chapter 8 Equal Protection, English Language Learners, and Desegregation

    Introduction

    The ISLLC standards call for educational leaders who “safeguard the values of democracy, equity, and diversity.” The legal requirement that reflects this standard is called equal protection. Equal protection means that the law applies equally to everyone regardless of race, ethnicity, religion, sex, and so forth. This chapter presents several aspects of equal protection as the concept applies to student access to a public education, placement, discipline, English language learners, and school desegregation. John Rawls’s “justice as fairness” concept is expanded to include discussions of social justice and social capital.

    Focus Questions

    1. What are social justice and social capital, and how are these concepts related to equal protection?

    2. Should race, ethnicity, or sex ever be considered to achieve a diverse student body?

    3. Should students be required to document U.S. citizenship before enrolling in public education?

    4. What information should public school districts be able to obtain from families before allowing their children to enroll in public schools?

    5. How are civil rights laws enforced?

    Key Terms

    1. De facto segregation

    2. De jure  segregation

    3. Disparate impact

    4. English language learners

    5. Equality of opportunity

    6. Office for Civil Rights

    7. Social justice

    8. Unitary status

    Case Study In All Fairness

    Lucinda Chavez sat silently as Father Michael Lewis approached the microphone to address the Centerville Board of Education. Lucinda had been superintendent for only a few months, but she already knew much of the history of Centerville School District (CSD). Until the 1960s, Centerville had been a dual school system composed of the Lincoln Schools for African American children and the Centerville Schools for White children. After considerable encouragement from the state government, the schools were consolidated in 1968. Since that time, CSD had been officially integrated. Lucinda knew that Father Lewis planned to use anecdotes to support his claim that racial inequalities in educational opportunities and discipline practices remained commonplace at CSD. Unfortunately, from what Lucinda could ascertain, Father Lewis had a legitimate concern.

    Father Lewis spoke eloquently as he told the story of 12-year-old Alejandro. Alejandro’s parents had come to Father Lewis’s church for help. They finally admitted that they were in the country illegally and told of the hardships they had endured to finally reach Centerville. Now broke, hungry, and desperate for work, the parents had tried to enroll Alejandro in school. According to Alejandro’s parents, Centerville Middle School counselors and administrators had requested proof of citizenship, which of course they did not have. Administrators were reportedly rude and threatened to call the police. Afraid of deportation, Alejandro and his parents fled the school and into Father Lewis’s church.

    Father Lewis told the story of Michael. Michael was a bright African American youth whom Father Lewis knew well. By the time Michael was in the ninth grade, he was being watched closely by several college basketball recruiters. Unfortunately, Michael was not always teacher friendly and, in spite of his repeated request for placement in college prep courses, he was placed by his high school counselors in lower-track courses and study hall. As graduation approached, it was obvious even to Michael that his dreams of playing college basketball had ended when his course work did not meet NCAA Clearinghouse requirements. By age 22, Michael was wealthy, feared, and dead. His mother and Father Lewis blamed the Centerville High School faculty for denying Michael the opportunity to take college courses. Father Lewis than spoke of the number of African American and Latino children in “dumbed-down” classes, the lack of access to advanced placement courses, the harsh discipline of any child of color who happened to cross the line, and the discrimination in numbers and value of scholarship awards to children of color.

    Father Lewis ended his speech: “Ladies and gentlemen of the board, these are our children, and with them go all of our hopes and dreams. In all fairness, the insidious discrimination in Centerville School District must end.” As Father Lewis sat down to thunderous applause, the board chairperson thanked him and moved to appoint a committee to study the problem. Lucinda knew it would be a difficult challenge to lead the board to a reasoned discussion of Father Lewis’s claims.

    Leadership Perspectives

    According to Frances  Fowler (2009) , the values of equality and fraternity are fundamental to educational policy in the United States. Equality as a policy value is also often referred to as  social justice . Equality is defined in the U.S. Constitution (“All men are created equal”) and in the Fourteenth Amendment (“No State shall . . . deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws”). This does not mean that all citizens have equal ability or the right to an equal share of property. Rather, it means that all citizens are of equal status, and the law is going to apply equally to everyone. For example, Title IX was designed at least in part to provide equal protection for female athletes, desegregation law is based on equal protection for minority children, and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination based on race, color, or natural origin by recipients of federal funds.

    Fraternity (or social capital) can be defined as the “ability to perceive other members of one’s society as brothers and sisters, to have a sense of responsibility for them, and to feel that in difficult times one can turn to them for help” ( Fowler, 2009 , p. 112). The importance of the development of social capital within the larger school community is reflected in ISLLC Standard 6E. Social capital is derived from the various resources, social support systems, and organizations that shape the normative environment in which a school functions. Two valuable sources of social capital are schools and families. The practice of racial integration, the integration of English language learners into the public school culture, and the inclusion or mainstreaming of special education children in the regular classroom are examples of policies designed to promote equality and social capital among diverse groups of students ( Fowler, 2009 ).

    ISLLC Standard 6E

    ISLLC Standards 4 and 5 call for school leaders to embrace the values of social justice and to understand and promote the development of social capital within the larger school community. These standards promote the understanding and appreciation of a community’s diverse resources, the promotion of positive relationships with families and caregivers, the safeguarding of democracy, equity, and diversity, and the promotion of social justice. In the case study “In All Fairness,” Father Lewis is asking the school district to examine these normative practices that in the opinion of Father Lewis have undermined the values of social justice and social capital in the Centerville community. However, the values of social justice and social capital sometimes conflict with the deeply held values that define not only individual persons, but the larger school culture as well. Lucinda Chavez may indeed face a difficult challenge in confronting long-held normative practices that fracture feelings of equality and brotherhood in the Centerville School District.

    ISLLC Standards 4 and 5

    ISLLC Standard 4B

    ISLLC Standard 4C

    ISLLC Standard 5C

    ISLLC Standard 5E

    Justice as Fairness: Promoting Equality and Fraternity

    The ethical concepts of a well-ordered school based on John Rawls’s ideas of social cooperation and public justification were discussed in  Chapter 5 . This concept was derived from  Rawls’s (2001)  first principle of “justice as fairness,” which states:

    · Principle One: Each person has the same indefeasible claim to a fully adequate scheme of equal basic liberties, which scheme is compatible with the same scheme of liberties for all. (p. 42)

    The justice as fairness concept will be further extended to the ethical considerations of equality (social justice) and fraternity (social capital) embedded in the ISLLC standards. The concepts of equality and fraternity are considered in the second of Rawls’s Principles of Justice:

    · Principle Two: Social and economic inequities are to satisfy two conditions: first, they are to be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity; and second, they are to be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society (the difference principle). (pp. 42–43)