International Comm

1 O V E R V I E W O F T H E P O L I T I C A L

E C O N O M Y O F C O M M U N I C AT I O N

Political economy is a major perspective in communication research. Since the 1940s, the approach has guided the work of scholars around the world and its global expansion continues today (Cao and Zhao, 2007; McChesney, 2007). This first chapter identifies the major ideas that subsequent chapters develop in depth and calls attention to key references that are drawn from throughout the book. The book begins its map of the political economy approach by defining it, identi-

fying its fundamental characteristics, and providing a guide to its major schools of thought. From here, it proceeds to examine how communication scholars have drawn on the theoretical framework to carry out research on communication media and information technologies. The section highlights recent trends, including the globalization of political economic research, the growth of historical research and of studies that concentrate on resistance to dominant media. It also emphasizes the transition from old to new media and the spread of communication activism. The book then turns to the philosophical foundation of a political economic

approach in order to better understand the enduring and new issues that need to be addressed in communication studies. Specifically, it calls for an approach to under- standing that accepts as real both the concepts or ideas that guide our thinking as well as our observations or what we perceive with our senses. It thereby rejects the view, prominent in some theories, that only our ideas or only our observations, but not both, are real. It also rejects the view that reality is little more than a chimera or a fig- ment of our imagination and that neither ideas nor observations are in any sense real. Moreover, this perspective means that reality is established or constituted by many sources and cannot be reduced to the essentialism of either economics (e.g. money alone drives the media) or culture (e.g. people’s values drive the media). The approach also brings to the forefront the concepts of social change, social processes, and social relations, even if that means re-evaluating the emphasis that political economy has traditionally placed on social institutions, like media businesses, or on seeing social class as a category rather than, as this approach suggests, as a social relationship. Putting these ideas into practice, the book moves on to identify three processes

that make up the main starting points for a political economy of communication.

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Commodification is the process of transforming things valued for their use into marketable products that are valued for what they can bring in exchange. This can be seen, for example, in the process of turning a story that friends enjoy into a film or a novel to be sold in the marketplace. How does the human act of communica- tion become a product produced for a profit? Spatialization is the process of over- coming the constraints of geographical space with, among other things, mass media and communication technologies. For example, television overcomes distance by bringing images of world events to every part of the globe and companies increas- ingly use computer communication to organize business on a worldwide basis, thereby allowing them greater access to markets and the flexibility to move rapidly when conditions make it less favorable for them to stay in one place. What happens when communications goes global and when businesses use communication to cre- ate and manufacture their products worldwide? Finally structuration is the process of creating social relations, mainly those organized around social class, gender, and race. For example, with respect to social class, political economy describes how access to the mass media and new communication technologies is influenced by inequali- ties in income and wealth which enable some to afford access and others to be left out. The book wraps up by describing how the political economy of communication responds to challenges from disciplines on its borders, specifically from cultural studies and public choice theory by building bridges across theoretical divides. The book concludes with a brief coda on new bridges to build.

What is Political Economy?

Let’s put more detail into this overview by taking a closer look at the makeup of this book. Chapter 2 covers the meaning of political economy, first by defining it and then by considering the main characteristics of the approach. Two definitions of political economy capture the wide range of approaches to the

discipline. In the narrow sense, political economy is the study of the social relations, par- ticularly the power relations, that mutually constitute the production, distribution, and con- sumption of resources, including communication resources. This formulation has a certain practical value because it calls attention to how the communication business operates. It leads us to examine, for example, how communications products move through a chain of producers, such as a Hollywood film studio, to distributors, and, finally, to consumers in theaters or in their living rooms. It also directs us to the ways consumer choices, such as the websites we visit and the television shows we watch, are fed back into decisions that companies make about new media products. Furthermore, it asks us to focus on how information about these choices and even our attention to media become products for sale in the marketplace. The definition directs the political econ- omist to understand the operation of power, a concept that addresses how people get what they want even when others do not want them to get it. It also leads us to think about what it means to be a producer, distributor, or consumer, and to appreciate the growing ambiguity about what constitutes these categories.

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A more general and ambitious definition of political economy is the study of control and survival in social life. Control refers specifically to how a society organizes itself, manages its affairs and adapts, or fails to adapt, to the inevitable changes that all soci- eties face. Survival means how people produce what they need to reproduce them- selves and to keep their society going. According to this interpretation, control is a political process because it shapes the relationships within a community, and sur- vival is mainly economic because it involves the process of production and reproduc- tion. The strength of this definition is that it gives political economy the breadth to encompass at least all human activity and, arguably, all living processes. This defini- tion was initially suggested to me by Dallas Smythe, one of the founding figures of the political economy of communication, in an interview for the first edition of this book. But since that time, it has been advanced by other political economists who are concerned about how humans relate to our increasingly threatened environment (Foster, 2002). Similar views have been advanced as well by leading figures in the rapidly developing field of science and technology studies (Haraway, 2003; Latour, 2005). The principal drawback of this broad definition is that it can lead one to over- look what distinguishes human political economy, principally our consciousness or awareness, from general processes of control and survival in nature. Another way to describe political economy is to broaden its meaning beyond what

is typically considered in definitions by focusing on a set of central qualities that characterize the approach. This section of Chapter 2 focuses on four ideas: history, the social totality, moral philosophy, and praxis. These are qualities that all schools of political economic thought tend to share, whatever their other differences. Political economy has consistently placed in the foreground the goal of understand-

ing social change and historical transformation. For the founding figures of political economy, people such as Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill, who were leading figures in European intellectual life in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, this meant explaining the great capitalist revolution, the vast social upheaval that transformed societies based primarily on agricultural labor into commercial, manufac- turing, and, eventually, industrial societies. Responding to this first wave of political economy thinking, Karl Marx shifted the debate by critically examining the dynamic forces within capitalism and the relationship between capitalism and other forms of political economic organization. He did this specifically in order to understand the processes of social change that would, he contended, ultimately lead from capitalism to socialism. The issue of explaining social change remains central for the political economist today but the debate has shifted to include the question of whether we are now entering an information society. Specifically, is ours a new kind of society, as was capitalism, or is it just a form of capitalism, perhaps to be called informational capital- ism? Are the forces of new communication and information technology so revolu- tionary that they are bringing about a radical restructuring that will lead to the transformation or even the dissolution of capitalism? Whatever the differences among political economists on this issue, there is no lack of attention and debate over it. Political economy is also characterized by an interest in examining the social whole

or the totality of social relations that make up the economic, political, social, and cultural

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areas of life. Political economy has always believed that there is a big picture of society and that we should try to understand it. Adam Smith was not constrained to look at only those things that a narrow discipline told him to see. He cared about the relation- ships among all facets of social life, including the political, economic, moral, and cul- tural. The same applied to Karl Marx, as it also does to today’s political economists, whether they belong to the institutional, conservative, neo-Marxian, autonomist, femi- nist, or environmental schools of political economic thought. They differ on many points but all aim to build on the unity of the political and the economic by account- ing for their mutual influence and for their relationship to wider social and symbolic spheres of activity. The political economist asks: How are power and wealth related and how are these in turn connected to cultural and social life? The political economist of communication wants to know how all of these influence and are influenced by our sys- tems of mass media, information, and entertainment. Political economy is also noted for its commitment to moral philosophy, which

means that it cares about the values that help to create social behavior and about those moral principles that ought to guide efforts to change it. For Adam Smith, as evidenced in his Theory of Moral Sentiments (1976), a book he favored more than the much more popular Wealth of Nations (1937), this meant understanding values like self-interest, materialism, and individual freedom, that were contributing to the rise of commercial capitalism. Whereas for Karl Marx (1973, 1976a), moral philosophy meant the ongoing conflict between viewing human labor as a source of individual fulfilment and social benefit, as he hoped would be the case, or simply as a mar- ketable commodity, as he concluded was the case in capitalism. Contemporary polit- ical economy supports a range of moral positions but, on balance, tends to favor the value of extending democracy to all aspects of social life. This includes the political realm, where democracy means the right to participate in government, but it also extends to the economic, social, and cultural domains where supporters of democ- racy call for income equality, access to education, full public participation in cultural production, and a guaranteed right to communicate freely. The fourth characteristic of political economy is social praxis, or the fundamental

unity of thinking and doing. Specifically, against traditional academic positions which separate research from social intervention and the researcher from the activist, politi- cal economists have consistently viewed intellectual life as a means of bringing about social change and social intervention as a means of advancing knowledge. This is in keeping with a tradition tracing its roots to ancient practices of providing advice and counsel to leaders. Political economists certainly differed on what should characterize intervention. Thomas Malthus so feared that population growth would outstrip the food supply that he supported open sewers because the spread of disease is one way to control population. On the other hand, there was Karl Marx, who called on workers to seize power. Notwithstanding these differences, political economists are united in the view that the division between research and action is artificial and must be overturned. Chapter 3 documents how the political economy approach is also distinguished by

the many schools of thought that guarantee a significant variety of viewpoints and vigorous internal debate. Arguably, the most important divide emerged in responses

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Social Issues

Social Issues Paper

1. Reaction Statement

“Doctors should maintain the right to deceive and withhold information from their patients as they see fit.”

2. Explanation of Selection

As a Christian, I am engaged in a constant search for truth, particularly that concerning the question of what is ethical. There are very few areas of life where ethical questions have black and white answers. However, no area is as comprehensively gray, nor does one involve so many important and pressing issues as the area of bioethics. In many cases, lives depend on what is deemed ethical by the doctors, the patients, and the patients’ families. The doctor-patient relationship may be the most precarious social relationship and certainly the one with the highest stakes.

3. Definition of Issue

In order to truly understand the issue of lying in the doctor-patient relationship, we must consider the reasons that a doctor might choose to deceive his or her patient. There are three primary reasons a doctor might consider lying to a patient (Gillon, 1982). The first springs from the obligation of doctors not to harm their patients. If informing the patient causes undue suffering and worry, it may be better to leave some information undisclosed. Secondly, the doctor may withhold information from a patient due to lack of comprehension – either on the part of the doctor regarding the diagnosis, or on the part of the patient regarding the ins and outs of medical procedures. Lastly, a doctor may withhold information if the patient does not wish to know. Each of these reasons has its own nuances, and so the question is to determine in which scenario, if any, there is such thing as an acceptable lie. In my paper, I will consider not only the ethical aspects of this question, but also the more pragmatic and economic facets of the discussion.

 

Works Cited

Gillon, R. (1982). On telling dying patients the truth. Journal of Medical Ethics, 8(3), 115-116. Retrieved from jme.bmj.com.

Hospitality And Tourism Management

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C h a p t e r 11

Gaming entertainment

L E A r N i N G o B J E C T i V E S

after reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Outline the history of modern casinos.

• Describe the various components of modern casino hotels.

• explain how casinos have been integrated into larger hospitality operations.

• Understand the basic principles of casino operations.

• Discuss the different positions within the gaming industry.

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486 Part iii tourism, recreation, attractions, Clubs, and Gaming

One of the most significant developments in the hospitality industry during the past three decades has been the astounding growth of the casino industry and its convergence with the lodging and hospitality industries. With its rapid expansion in North America and throughout the world, new opportunities have been created for hospitality careers within casino resorts.

Gaming entertainment While the gaming entertainment industry is a global industry, there are five types of legal gambling in the Unites States. this includes charitable gam- ing, commercial casinos, lotteries, Native american gaming, and parimutuel gaming. Some form of legal gaming exists in 48 of the 50 states, with com- mercial casinos representing the largest part of the domestic gaming market. While gaming revenues vary by the state, the industry contributes billions of dollars in tax revenue to these local governments on an annual basis. the gaming entertainment industry has seen development not only in the United States, but also internationally, particularly in the asian destinations of Macau and Singapore. the size and scope of the global gaming industry are expected to reach $117.9 billion dollars in 2015.

When a customer places a bet in any type of gaming activity and the casino guest wins the game, he or she receives a cash payout; if the guest loses the game, the money is wagered. the total amount of the bets is called the handle, and the net amount spent by the guest is called the win by the gaming entertainment industry.

What is the difference between gambling and gaming? Gambling is play- ing a game of risk for the thrill of the action and the chance of making money. true gamblers spend a great deal of time learning and understand- ing a favorite game of risk and enjoying the subtle attributes, and, in par- ticular, they find an enjoyable challenge in trying to beat the house, or win more than they lose from a casino. a gambler has little interest in anything other than a casino floor and the games it offers. It is true that of the nearly 40 million visitors who go to Las Vegas, the approximately 27 million peo- ple who go to atlantic City, and the hundreds of thousands who frequent other casino operations, they love the green felt table, the whirling roulette wheels, the fall of the chips, the lottery-like game of keno, and the thrill of the game. the rows of colorful slot machines sounding out musical tones and flashing lights, the distant sounds of someone hitting the jackpot, and the ringing bells and shouting guests create an environment of excitement and anticipation that can be found only on the casino floor. the gaming industry has exploded from just two jurisdictions in 1976 to some form of legal gambling in 48 states.

Not long ago, the presence of slot machines or blackjack tables was all that was needed to lure visitors. however, with the rapid spread of casinos through North america, this is no longer true. the competitive nature of casino business has forced the creation of a bigger, better product to meet

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chapter 11 Gaming entertainment 487

the needs of its guests. this product, gaming entertainment, has evolved over the past decade.

Games of risk are only part of the total package of entertainment and leisure time activities found in gaming entertainment. Gaming entertainment serves a customer base of social gamblers, customers who play a game of risk as a form of entertainment and social activity, thus combining gam- bling with other activities during their visits. Social gamblers, by this defini- tion, are interested in many gaming entertainment amenities and take part in many diverse activities during a stay. Gaming entertainment refers to the casino gaming business and all its aspects, including hotel operations, enter- tainment offerings, retail shopping, recreational activities, and other types of operations, in addition to wagering on the gaming floor. the heart of gaming entertainment has been dubbed the “entertainment megastore” with thousands of rooms; dynamic, interesting exterior architecture; and nongam- ing attractions.

Gaming entertainment is the business of hospitality and entertainment with its core strength in casino gaming. according to this definition, a gam- ing entertainment business always has a casino floor area that offers various games of risk that serve as the focal point for marketing to and attracting guests. Next in importance to the guests are high-quality food and beverage operations.

Gaming entertainment is one of the last hospitality concepts to sup- port the full service, tableside gourmet restaurant, in addition to the lavish buffet offerings that many casino locations offer. the number of foodservices is wide and diverse—from signature restaurants featuring famous chefs to ethnic offerings to quick service, franchised outlets. the gambling entertainment industry offers unlimited career opportunities in restaurant management and the culinary arts that were unheard of just a decade ago.

Gaming entertainment also goes hand in hand with the lodging industry because hotel rooms are part of the package. Full service hotels are part and parcel of gaming entertainment. rooms, food and beverage, convention ser- vices, banquet facilities, health spas, recreation, and other typical hotel ame- nities support gaming entertainment. Most of the largest and complex hotels in the world are found in gaming entertainment venues, a number of which are described in detail later in this chapter.

Gaming entertainment offers a place where guests can gamble (the casino floor), eat and drink, sleep and relax, and maybe do some business. But there is much more: the entertainment ranges from live performances by the most famous entertainers to production shows that use high-tech wizardry. Gaming entertainment includes theme parks and thrill rides, muse- ums, and cultural centers. the most popular gaming entertainment destina- tions are designed around a central theme that includes the hotel and the casino operations. Unlike its predecessor, the casino business, the gaming entertainment business has numerous revenue-generating activities. revenue is produced from casino wins, or the money that guests spend on the casino floor. the odds of any casino game are in favor of the house, some more

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488 Part iii tourism, recreation, attractions, Clubs, and Gaming

than others. a casino win is the cost of gambling to guests, who often win over the house in the short run and are therefore willing to place the bets and try their luck.

Nongaming revenue comes from sources that are not related to wager- ing on the casino floor. as the gaming entertainment concept continues to emphasize activities other than gambling, nongaming revenue is increasing in importance. this is what gaming entertainment is truly about: hospitality entertainment based on the attraction of casino.

What form does gaming entertainment take? the mega-resorts of Las Vegas and atlantic City garner the most publicity as the meccas of the gam- ing entertainment industry. however, there are smaller properties through- out Nevada, and other casino-based businesses in 48 states and seven Canadian provinces. these casinos take the form of commercially operated businesses, both privately and publicly held. Some are land based, mean- ing casinos are housed in regular buildings. Other are in river boats that cruise up and down a river or on barges moored in water and do not cruise, called dockside casinos. Casinos are also operated by Native american tribes on their reservations and tribal lands. these are land-based casinos and are often as complex as any operations in Las Vegas. Gaming entertainment is also popular on cruise ships.

there is a strong support for gaming in the marketplace as an entertain- ment activity. patrons are required to be 21 years of age to gamble in the United States, and research shows that more than a third of americans have visited a casino in the last 12 months, and 32 percent of them have actually gambled in those 12 months. according to the market research, more than 85 percent of U.S. adults say casino entertainment is acceptable for themselves or others. eighty-six percent of americans report having gambled at least once.

Commercial casinos account for 36 percent of gaming revenue. Indian casinos and state lotteries tie for second place at 26 percent. the demo- graphic makeup of the typical gaming entertainment guest has remained consistent during the past several years. In comparison to the average american, casino players tend to have higher levels of income and education and are more likely to hold white collar jobs. the customer profile of Las Vegas is a younger demographic of guests who spend money in search of total entertainment experience.

historical review of Gaming entertainment the precise origin of gambling is still unknown today. however, according to Chinese records, the first official account of the practice dates back to as far as 2300 b.c.e.! the romans were also gamblers. they placed bets on char- iot races, cockfights, and on dice throwing. this eventually led to problems: gambling, or games of chance, was banned except for during the winter festival of Saturnalia.1

LearNING OBjeCtIVe 1 Outline the history of modern casinos.

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In the seventeenth century, casino-style gaming clubs existed in england and Central europe. a public gambling house was legalized for the first time in 1626 in Venice, Italy, and one gambling establishment, in Baden- Baden, Germany, opened in 1948 and is still open today.2 Soon the upper class met in so-called casinos to socialize and gamble. In the first half of the nineteenth century, organized gaming casinos started to develop.

Las Vegas—the name alone summons images of neon lights, extravagant shows, outrageous performers, and bustling casinos where millions are won and lost every night. Las Vegas is all of that and much more. this city repre- sents the american dream. Since the state of Nevada legalized gambling in 1931, Las Vegas has been transformed into one of the most elaborate cities in the world and one of the hottest vacation spots.

the gaming entertainment business in the United States has its roots in Las Vegas. From the early 1940s until 1976, Nevada, and predominantly Las Vegas, had a monopoly on the gaming entertainment business. Casinos had no hotel rooms, entertainment, or other amenities. the hotels that existed were just places to sleep when guests were not on the casino floor.

Las Vegas is rich with tales of Benjamin hymen Siegelbaum, better known as Bugsy Siegel. Siegel was born February 28, 1906, in Brooklyn, New York, to a poor jewish family. It is said that he began his career at a very young age by extorting money from pushcart peddlers. eventually he turned to a life of bootlegging, gambling rackets, and murder-for-hire opera- tions. In 1931, Bugsy was one of four men who executed Giuseppe “joe the Boss” Masseria. Several years later, he was sent out West to develop rack- ets. In California, Siegel successfully developed gambling dens and ships. he also took part in narcotics smuggling, blackmail, and other question- able operations. after developing a nationwide bookmaking wire operation, Siegel moved on to build the well-known Flamingo hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. the casino ended up costing over $6 million, which forced Siegel to skim profits. Siegel subsequently died in Beverly hills in june 1947, hit by a barrage of bullets fired through the window of his home. the day after his death, three mobsters walked into the Flamingo hotel and announced that they were the new owners.3

During the 1970s, atlantic City was in an impoverished state, with high rates of crime and poverty. In an effort to revitalize the city, New jersey vot- ers, in 1976, approved casino gambling in atlantic City.4 Later casino gam- bling was legalized in the state of New jersey by the Casino Control act. the state looked to the casino industry to invest capital, create jobs, pay taxes, and attract tourists, thus revitalizing the economy and creating a financial environment in which urban redevelopment could occur.

the act initiated a number of fees and taxes specific to the casino hotel business that would provide revenues to support regulatory costs, fund social services for the disabled and the elderly through the state, and pro- vide investment funds for the redevelopment of atlantic City. the Casino Control act created the Casino Control Commission, whose purpose was not only to ensure the success and integrity of the atlantic City casino industry, but also to carry out the object of reversing economic futures of cities.5

Sensing that the objectives of the Casino Control act were being fulfilled in New jersey and wanting similar benefits for its state, but not wanting

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490 Part iii tourism, recreation, attractions, Clubs, and Gaming

land-based casino gambling, Iowa legalized riverboat casinos in the early 1990s. Illinois, Mississippi, Louisiana, Missouri, and Indiana followed suit in rapid succession. as the casino industry spread throughout the United States and Canada, its competitive nature created a need for what is now known as gaming entertainment and added to non casino attractions. Gaming enter- tainment is, therefore, a natural evolution of the casino industry.

Native american Gaming In California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians, et al. (1987), the Supreme Court decided 6 to 3 that once a state has legalized any form of gambling, the Native americans in that state have the right to offer and self-regulate the same games without government restrictions. this ruling came about after the state of California and the county of riverside sought to impose local and state regulations on card and bingo clubs operated by the Cabazon and Morongo bands of Mission Indians. the Court clearly recognized the rights of tribes with regard to certain gaming activities.6

Congress, which some observers say was alarmed by the prospect of losing control over tribal gaming, responded to these court decisions by passing the Indian Gaming regulatory act of 1988 (IGra). the IGra provides a framework by which games are conducted in a way that protects both tribes and the general public. For example, the IGra outlines criteria for approval of casino management contracts entered into by tribes and establishes civil penalties for violation of its provisions. the act is clearly a compromise in that it balances the rights of sovereign tribal nations to conduct gaming activities on their lands with the rights of the federal and state governments to regulate activities within state and federal borders.7 the three objectives of the IGra are as follows:

1. provide a statutory basis for the operation of gaming by Native american tribes as a means of promoting tribal economic development, self-sufficiency, and strong tribal governments;

2. provide a statutory basis for the regulations of gaming by the Native american tribe adequate to shield it from organized crime and other corrupting influence;

3. establish an independent regulatory authority, the National Indian Gaming Commission (NIGC), for governing activity on Native american lands.8

IGra defines three different kinds, or classes, of Native american gaming activities:

• Class I gaming, consisting of social games played solely for prizes of minimum value or traditional forms of Native american gaming

• Class II gaming, consisting of bingo, games similar to bingo, and called games explicitly authorized by the laws of the state

What is the relationship between media and propaganda?

Choose one of the two options below for your discussion.

Option 1

1. What is the relationship between media and propaganda?

2. Beyond American Sniper, present and discuss 2 Hollywood films that push American war propaganda.

3. Using current examples, demonstrate how US propaganda is pushed abroad today.

You can use the reading on the US military base in Ghana to help guide you to come up with current examples of how US propaganda manifests in the Global South today.

Reflections should be 300-500 words long. Your initial reflections are due by Thursday.

  • Incorporate references to course materials presented this week and a link to a current news event or topic that relates to the week’s materials into your reflections.

Comment on at least TWO of your classmates’ discussion posts by Monday. 

  • Your comments should reflect one or more of the following:
    • Agreement with extension
    • An alternative perspective with your rationale
    • A respectful challenge with counter argument

Option 2

1. Using current examples, demonstrate how media framing of issues around immigration and terrorism reinscribe the status quo by perpetuating the immigrant vs. expatriate and terrorist vs. lone-wolf trope.

2. How do these week’s readings and video clips further our understanding of the relationship between media, war, and foreign policy in the post 9/11 political environment?

3. Many would argue that the United States has become paranoid after 9/11, which has resulted in an acceleration of surveillance not just outside of U.S. borders but also within. Are we in a perpetual state of fear? What might be the consequences of this constant state of fear?

Reflections should be 300-500 words long. Your initial reflections are due by Thursday.

  • Incorporate references to course materials presented this week and a link to a current news event or topic that relates to the week’s materials into your reflections.

Comment on at least TWO of your classmates’ discussion posts by Monday. 

  • Your comments should reflect one or more of the following:
    • Agreement with extension
    • An alternative perspective with your rationale
    • A respectful challenge with counter argument