write a conclusion telling the emperor what you think he should do and why
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
Introduction
In 1279, under the leadership of Kublai Khan, the Mongols ousted the Song dynasty
and completed their conquest of China. As they
took control, they established the Yuan dynasty,
with Kublai Khan serving as emperor. However,
Mongol rule over China was relatively short lived.
Within 100 years, the Yuan dynasty would be
forced out by Chinese rebels.
Under Mongol rule, the Chinese became
increasingly angered by policies that favored
Mongols and foreigners. This anger and resentment
eventually resulted in unrest. Around 1350, small
states in China began to emerge to fight the
Mongols. Chinese leaders turned to military force to
advance their interests and establish regional
power. Some leaders were members of the upper class, and others were religious
leaders or bandits supported by peasants. By the middle of the 1350s, these Chinese
powers were united in their campaign to get rid of Mongol rule.
The years of ongoing warfare spurred military innovation among the Chinese.
Although the Mongols had access to gunpowder weapons, they did not develop new
technologies. In contrast, the first large cannons in China were manufactured by the
Chinese rebels. While the term “Gunpowder Empire” is often associated with the
Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire, and the Mughal Empire, the Chinese
advancements in gunpowder weaponry has led some historians to regard Ming China
as the world’s first gunpowder empire.
1
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
In this lesson, you will learn about three countries in Eurasia that used gunpowder
to expand and maintain their control: China, Japan, and Russia. You will consider the
rise and fall of the Ming and Qing dynasties in China. You will examine the unification of
Japan under the Tokugawa. Finally, you will explore the growth of the Russian Empire
during the Romanov dynasty.
Section 1. China Under the Ming and Qing
Between the 14th and the early 20th centuries,
two dynasties governed China: the Ming and the Qing.
Both dynasties took power during times of upheaval.
To restore order, they established strong, centralized
rule and revived traditional Chinese values, including
Confucian ideals.
The Ming Revival By the mid-1300s, China was in
turmoil. The Mongols’ hold on power had became
unstable. Disease and natural disasters had weakened
the Mongol grip. Additionally, feuds broke out within the government, leaving the
countryside unprotected against bandits and rebels.
As life became more dangerous and difficult, Chinese peasants grew increasingly
frustrated with the incompetence of their rulers. Led by Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant
uprising successfully invaded the city of Nanjing. In 1368, aided by gunpowder
weapons, Zhu and his army captured the city of Beijing, the Mongol capital in China.
After destroying the Mongol palaces and forcing the Mongol rulers to retreat north, Zhu
took power and established the Ming dynasty. This name comes from the Chinese
word Ming, which means “brilliant.”
2
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
The new Ming emperor set out to restore traditional Chinese rule. He revived the
state examination system used to select officials for the civil service. This system of
tests was based on the Chinese classics, especially the works of the philosopher
Confucius. Under Ming rule, Confucian scholars were again elevated in Chinese society.
Classical art and literature were held up as models for artistic expression.
The emperor also reformed the tax system and distributed land to Chinese
peasants. Under the Ming, agriculture prospered. New crops such as sweet potatoes
and corn, brought from the Americas in the 1500s, increased the food supply. As a
result, the Chinese population doubled under the almost three centuries of Ming rule.
Trade and commerce also increased, although Ming rulers—in traditional Confucian
style—favored agriculture over business.
During his 30-year reign, Zhu Yuanzhang, also known as Emperor Taizu, brought
stability to China. However, he was also a despot who ruled with an iron fist. While he
recognized Confucian scholars’ role in administering effective government, Zhu viewed
the scholar class as dangerous and sought to curb scholars’ power and ensure that
they were working exclusively on
his behalf. Fearing threats to his
power, he had thousands of officials
executed for suspected
wrongdoing. In one instance, he had
the prime minister and 30,000 of his
followers executed for a plot to
overthrow him. He described his
actions this way: “In the morning I
punish a few; by evening others
3
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
commit the same crime. . . . Day and night I cannot rest. . . . To be a ruler is indeed
difficult.”
Ming Expansion In 1402, the emperor’s son, Yong Le, took power. Like his father, Yong
Le continued to strengthen the Chinese state. He also built a new capital at Beijing,
which was enclosed by high walls and featured a great palace—called the Forbidden
City—at its heart. In its grand design, the new capital symbolized the power of the
Chinese empire. Beijing’s location also allowed the emperor to focus on the ongoing
Mongol threat to the north.
Later Ming emperors also rebuilt the Great Wall, an ancient defense against
nomadic invaders from the north. Construction of the wall represented a major change
in Ming military strategy, from offence to defense. In the past, Ming military campaigns
to the Mongolian steppe had been costly and failed, despite the Ming’s advanced
gunpowder weapons.
In addition, Yong Le expanded China’s influence overseas. He sponsored a series of
great ocean voyages under the command of Admiral Zheng He. Between 1405 and
1433, Zheng He led a large fleet on seven voyages to Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and
Africa. He met with foreign rulers and brought back exotic goods, including zebras and
giraffes. The main purpose of the voyages was to increase the flow of tribute to China.
For the Ming, the tribute system demonstrated Chinese power. It bolstered their
age-old belief that China, which they called the “Middle Kingdom,” was the center of
the world.
Although the Ming voyages were great successes, the government ended sea travel
in the 1430s. The expeditions were expensive, and China decided to focus attention on
defending its northern border against Mongol invasions. The decision also reflected the
conservative Chinese view that other cultures were inferior and had little to offer China.
4
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
Increasingly, the Ming rulers looked inward and isolated China from the rest of the
world.
The Qing Dynasty Ming rule lasted for nearly three centuries. By the early 1600s,
however, the Ming dynasty had grown weak and corrupt. Famine and peasant
rebellions ravaged the country. To the Chinese people, the Ming had lost the Mandate
of Heaven, the traditional right to govern.
In 1644, rebels invaded Beijing and overthrew the last Ming emperor. Ming officials
sought assistance from the Manchus, a confederation of tribes from Manchuria, to fight
the rebellion. However, the Manchus took advantage of the Ming dynasty’s weakness
and seized the capital instead. They established a new dynasty, the Qing, which means
“pure.”
The Manchus’ rise to power was anything but sudden. In the 1610s, they had
begun to raid Ming territory. At the time, the Manchus depended largely on cavalry
forces, whereas the Ming fought with firearms. Despite this, the Manchus were able to
defeat the Ming in battle thanks to their tactical maneuvering and the Ming’s ineffective
use of gunpowder weapons.
As the Manchus conquered Ming territory, they took gunpowder weapons from
Chinese arsenals and recruited Chinese soldiers who knew how to use them. Over time,
and after some defeats, the Manchus began to develop a method of fighting that
incorporated their highly skilled cavalry as well as gunpowder weapons. Combining
these different forms of fighting was essential in helping the Manchus ultimately
overcome the Ming.
By the time the Manchus officially formed the Qing dynasty in 1644, they had been
gradually building their power in China. Though the Manchus had long been influenced
by Chinese culture and had adopted many Chinese customs, the Chinese still saw them
5
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
as foreign barbarians. Because of this, the Manchus met strong resistance to their rule.
Over subsequent decades, however, they brought all of China under their control.
To remain in power, the Manchus adopted policies that were both tough and
generous. On the one hand, they forced Chinese men to submit to their rule by wearing
their hair in the Manchu style, with a shaved forehead and braided hair. They also kept
control of the military by reserving the top positions for Manchus.
At the same time, the Manchus showed
respect for Chinese traditions. They preserved the
overall structure of Ming government and ruled
according to Confucian principles. They supported
the state exam system and allowed Chinese
officials to hold high positions in government. They
upheld the values of classical Chinese culture. In
this way, the Manchus gradually won acceptance
from the Chinese people.
The Qing dynasty also benefited from having
two outstanding emperors. The first, Kangxi, ruled
from 1661 to 1722. Under Kangxi, the Qing defeated the last of the Ming dynasty in
1683. His grandson, Qianlong, gained the throne in 1735 and held power just as long.
Both men were wise and capable rulers. They expanded the boundaries of the empire
and brought peace and prosperity to China. Qing China became the largest and richest
empire in the world.
Isolation and Decline As in the past, most of China’s wealth came from agriculture. But
trade and commerce also played an important role. Like good Confucian rulers, the Qing
officially discouraged trade, while allowing it in limited form. They restricted European
traders to the port of Canton, in southern China, and showed little interest in European
6
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
goods. In 1793, Emperor Qianlong
wrote to King George III of
England: “Our Celestial Empire
possesses all things in
abundance. We have no need for
barbarian products.”
Nevertheless, the Qing agreed to
exchange Chinese
goods—including silk and
tea—for silver from the Americas.
As a result, China’s economy
continued to grow, and so did its population. Between 1650 and 1800, the population
rose from 150 million to 350 million, more than one-third of humanity. However, China
could not sustain such growth forever. In the 1800s, it began to experience food
shortages and famine. Once again, rebellions broke out and the dynasty faltered.
In some ways, China’s success under Qing rule also contained the seeds of its
decline. For centuries, China had relied on its traditions to ensure stability, prosperity,
and power. But as global interaction increased and the world began to change, this
conservative approach hindered progress. China rejected new ideas in science,
technology, and economics that might have brought increased productivity and wealth.
Similarly, because China entered a period of sustained peace in 1760, there was no
drive or need for military innovation, and the strength of its armed forces declined.
This reluctance to change left China vulnerable to the growing power of Europe.
The Qing dynasty lasted until 1912, but as a result of its policies, it was increasingly
dominated by Western powers in the late 1800s.
7
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
Section 2. Tokugawa Japan
While the Ming dynasty ruled China, another strong dynasty—the Tokugawa—took
power in Japan. In the 1600s, the Tokugawa unified Japan and brought a long period of
peace and stability to the country.
A Feudal System For centuries, Japan had been a feudal society, much like
medieval Europe. Local lords, known as daimyo, controlled large landed estates. They
relied on armies of samurai warriors to defend their land and settle disputes with other
lords.
At the top of this feudal structure was the emperor, who claimed descent from a
mythical sun goddess. But real power rested in the hands of the shogun, a military
leader who ruled on behalf of the emperor and demanded the allegiance of the daimyo.
In theory, the daimyo respected the shogun’s authority, but the system was unstable.
Because power was decentralized and allegiance based on military strength, a lord
who grew strong enough might challenge the shogun and seize power himself.
In the late 1400s, civil war broke out when a series of weak shoguns lost control of
the state. For the next century, the daimyo, backed by their samurai armies, battled
each other for power. This period of warfare was known as the Age of the Warring
States. It was during this era that gunpowder weapons were widely introduced in
Japan.
Gunpowder weapons had been used in Japan previously— albeit by the Mongols
during their failed invasions in the late 13th century. During the 1400s and early 1500s,
merchants and travelers brought some guns from China to Japan. However,
gunpowder weapons, particularly guns, did not gain wider attention—or use—until the
arrival of the Portuguese in 1543.
8
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
In September 1543, a Chinese ship with a few Portuguese men onboard landed on
the Japanese island of Tanegashima. The men were introduced to the island’s lord and
demonstrated how to use the strange oblong objects they were carrying called
muskets. Intrigued, the lord bought one or two guns and then decided that they should
be manufactured on iron-rich Tanegashima. A local blacksmith was tasked with
creating copies of the musket.
News of this weapon spread around Japan.
Muskets were soon manufactured in many parts
of the country, and saltpeter for gunpowder
became an important import from China. Within
decades of the musket’s introduction, thousands
of guns were being produced annually in Japan.
Daimyo eagerly sought these new weapons as
the conflicts of the Age of the Warring States
intensified.
By the late 1500s, a series of powerful
daimyo had emerged. Aided by muskets and
field artillery, the first two each defeated their
rivals, consolidated their power, and worked to
unify Japan. But it was a third lord, Tokugawa
Ieyasu, who finally ended the wars and united Japan. In 1603, he became shogun. He
created a dynasty and a government that ruled Japan for the next 250 years.
Tokugawa Rule To ensure stability, the Tokugawa rulers formed a strong, centralized
government. They established controls on the daimyo and on Japanese society that
allowed them to govern effectively. Scholars have referred to the Tokugawa system as
centralized feudalism.
9
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
To curb the power of the daimyo, the Tokugawa rulers created a secret police force
to root out opposition. They restricted the production of gunpowder weapons,
prohibited their import, and controlled the production of gunpowder and ammunition.
They banned the construction of new castles. They also restricted the movement of
samurai and forced the daimyo and their families to live as virtual hostages in Edo, the
capital city now known as Tokyo. This arrangement placed a great financial burden on
the daimyo while curbing their power and helping ensure their loyalty.
The Tokugawa also established a rigid social structure, consisting of four social
classes. At the top was the warrior class of lords and samurai, which made up about 7
percent of the population. Next came
farmers, considered the most productive
part of society. Artisans made up the
third social class. At the bottom were
merchants. An elaborate code of
etiquette laid out rules for the dress and
behavior of each class.
In principle, social mobility was rare in
Japan. This rigid structure was designed
to ensure social order and respect for
authority. In this way, it helped reinforce Tokugawa rule.
Chinese Influence Long before the rise of the Tokugawa, Japanese society and culture
had reflected Confucian values from China. As an island nation, Japan had never been
conquered by China. However, Japan was still heavily influenced by Chinese civilization
and culture.
As early as 500 C.E., Chinese culture was making its mark on Japan. However, the
Japanese did not simply adopt Chinese culture; rather, they had their own interpretation
10
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
of it. Over time, the Japanese combined Chinese customs with their own traditions to
form a unique Japanese culture. For example, in the mid-500s, some Japanese adopted
Buddhism, which arrived from Korea via China. Yet they did not abandon their original
religion, Shinto. Instead, each religion thrived and embraced elements of the other.
China’s influence on Japan greatly increased after Empress Suiko and Prince
Shotoku came to power in 593. In particular, Shotoku encouraged the Japanese to
embrace cultures from mainland Asia, especially from China and Korea, and subsequent
rulers did as well. Knowledge of mainland culture came from Japanese travelers
returning from China, as well as from items sent from the mainland to Japan.
Sometimes, it came from Korean workers who settled in Japan, bringing their
knowledge and skills with them.
In addition to Confucian thought, the Japanese borrowed their political structures
from China. Previously, Japanese rulers shared power with the leaders of clans
throughout the nation and depended on them to govern. This began to change under
Shotoku. He created ranks for government officials based on Confucian ideas. In 604,
he issued a set of guidelines called the Seventeen Article Constitution, which stated
that the emperor was the supreme ruler. Later in the 600s, the emperor took control of
the land from the clans and redistributed it. By the 700s, Japan’s government was very
much like China’s, with centralized leadership supported by a large bureaucracy.
Between the 600s and 900s, China continued to influence Japan culturally. Japan
sent officials, students, translators, and monks on ships across the sea to China. These
people often remained in China for years before returning home with what they had
learned. As a result of these contacts, the Japanese acquired new ideas about
government, the arts, architecture, and writing.
During the Tokugawa era, various art forms native to Japan flourished. Kabuki is a
form of theater that combines elaborate costumes, music, and dance. It became popular
11
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
in Japanese cities. Visual artists created beautiful woodblock prints showing scenes
from urban and rural life. Writers and poets explored new forms of literature, including
short verse called haiku.
A Policy of Isolation Leads to Decline Not long before the Tokugawa took power,
European traders and missionaries had arrived in Japan. At first, the Tokugawa rulers
remained open to foreign influence. They took an interest in Western goods and
welcomed new ideas in science, mapmaking, and
shipbuilding. They even allowed Catholics to set up
missions. They became alarmed, however, when the
Japanese began to convert to Catholicism. Religious
intolerance spread in the form of expelling the
missionaries and cracking down on Christian converts.
This xenophobia, or fear of foreigners, started to
affect commercial exchange when the government also
began to restrict trade. By 1638, it had expelled most
European traders, limiting trade to just one port. Only the
Dutch were allowed to visit, and only once or twice a year.
The government also prohibited the Japanese from traveling abroad and outlawed the
building of large ships.
For the next two centuries, Japan was effectively isolated from the rest of the world.
This policy of isolation was beneficial in that it helped the Tokugawa rulers preserve
Japanese traditions and maintain control. But the negative impact was that it also
prevented Japan from gaining useful knowledge from abroad. Like China under the
Qing, Japan did not benefit from developing ideas in science, technology, and other
fields that would have helped the country develop. Ultimately, this lack of progress left
Japan vulnerable to foreign powers.
12
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
Additionally, Japan did not have modern weaponry to defend itself. After restricting
production of firearms to prevent the daimyo from obtaining them, the Tokugawa
government had minimal need for such weapons. Restricting access to information
about new gunpowder technology from abroad became a priority. The government
maintained a monopoly on firearms, but over time, production more or less ceased.
By the 19th century, many, including the shogun, began to worry about Japan’s lack
of modern weaponry. They feared that another country would try to gain control of
Japan. Attempts to restart weapon production were made but largely failed because
the weakened Tokugawa government could not obtain the necessary funds. In the
mid-1800s, foreign powers,
including the Dutch, French, and
English, repeatedly attempted to
open the country and develop
commercial relations. Then, in
1853, lacking the defenses to
resist, Japan was forced to open
up to foreign trade by U.S.
warships.
Subsequently, violence erupted over whether Japan should expel foreigners or
continue to open. However, those seeking to rid the country of foreigners realized that
they did not have adequate means to do so by force. Some then turned to overthrow
the Tokugawa government. As this movement gained power, the last shogun resigned,
ending the Tokugawa period.
13
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
Section 3. The Russian Empire
In the 1500s, Russia formed a powerful state and began to expand its territory.
Over the next few centuries, it built a great empire that stretched across Eurasia. Unlike
China or Japan, however, Russia made efforts to modernize by adopting Western ideas.
The Rise of Russia The origins of the Russian
state go back to the late 1400s and the rise of
Prince Ivan III of Moscow. At the time, the
Mongols still controlled Russia, but they were
divided and their power was waning. To
maintain control, the Mongols allowed Russian
princes to govern their own cities in return for
tribute payments. They also allowed Russians
to practice their Orthodox Christian faith,
which helped bolster Russian identity under
Mongol rule.
Ivan III—also known as Ivan the
Great—came to power in 1462 and began to
conquer lands around Moscow and build up
his strength. At this time, Ivan III was a
tributary of the Mongols. However, the Mongols were in decline. Their population had
been reduced by disease, and their military remained dependent on cavalry forces and
failed to effectively employ guns. These weaknesses enabled the Russians to take large
portions of Mongol territory. By 1480, Ivan III had thrown off Mongol control, although
some Mongol elements remained a threat until 1502.
14
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
Over the next two decades, Ivan the Great continued his conquests. With the aim of
uniting Slavic peoples, he tripled the size of Moscow’s territory and made it the
dominant power in Russia. He also began to call himself czar, the Russian form of
“caesar.” He saw Russia as the “Third Rome”: the heir to the Roman and Byzantine
empires and the defender of Christianity.
Ivan the Great’s successors continued to expand the Russian state. The most
powerful of the early czars was his grandson, Ivan IV, who gained the throne as a child
in 1533. During his reign of about 50 years, Ivan IV took three steps to strengthen the
central government and modernize Russia. First, he conquered Mongol lands to the
south and east, incorporating them into Russian territory. Second, he instituted reforms,
including a uniform code of laws, to make the state more efficient. This was especially
important given the difficulty of controlling Russia’s expanding territory. Third, he
fought feudalism and took steps to curb the power of the boyars, Russia’s landed
nobility. In turn, he increased the power of military leaders who were loyal to him.
In centralizing power, Ivan IV also worked to strengthen the military. When he
ascended the throne, the army was largely a cavalry force. To support a more modern
military, Ivan IV expanded the training of Russian soldiers to include skills such as
engineering and gunsmithing. These developments laid the groundwork that enabled
the formation a permanent infantry force, field artillery force, and combat engineer
corps.
Ivan is best remembered, however, as a cruel tyrant who terrorized Russian society.
Midway through his reign, he became obsessed with threats to his rule. Suspecting that
the boyars were plotting against him, Ivan established an oprichnina, territory directly
under his control, in an attempt to further reduce their power. The oprichnina enabled
him to force boyars from their land, reducing their political and economic power.
15
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
Within the oprichnina, Ivan had a personal bodyguard of up to 6,000 men drawn
from the lower gentry. Known as the oprichniki, this bodyguard was loyal to Ivan. It
functioned as a secret police force that arrested, tortured, and killed those suspected of
resisting or challenging his authority, including its own members. For example, in 1570,
Ivan and the oprichniki sacked the city of Novgorod and executed people of all classes
because he questioned the city’s loyalty. Ivan and the oprichniki conducted a reign of
terror, earning him the nickname Ivan the Terrible.
Rule of the Romanovs After Ivan’s death in 1584, his son Fyodor became czar. Fyodor
was a weak ruler, however, who failed to
mend the divisions caused by his father. In the
early 1600s, after Fyodor’s death, Russia was
engulfed in a 15-year period of civil war
known as the Time of Troubles.
In 1613, however, a new czar, Michael
Romanov, came to power. Gradually, Russia
began to recover from the social divisions Ivan
had created. The Romanov family would rule
Russia for the next 300 years.
Under the Romanovs, Russia continued to
expand its empire. It moved east, taking in the
lands of Siberia—a huge portion of the Asian
continent—and extending Russia’s borders to the Pacific Ocean. Siberia was rich in
resources, including furs. During the 1600s, Russian colonizers settled in Siberia and
established a lucrative fur trade.
16
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
The Modernizing Czars The Romanovs continued to reform and modernize the Russian
state. The leaders in this effort were Peter I, also known as Peter the Great, and
Catherine the Great. Their rule marked the golden age of Russia’s enlightenment.
When Peter took power in 1682, Russia was still largely isolated from Europe. But
Peter was determined to open Russia up to the West. He took a long journey through
England and France to absorb new ideas. He visited factories and museums, and even
worked for a time in a shipyard. He returned home with plans to transform Russia into
a modern nation.
Peter also sought to gain access to a coastline. At this time, Russia’s only seaport
was at Archangel on the White Sea, along the northern coast. Gaining access to ports
on the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, and especially the Baltic Sea was seen as crucial for
Russian trade. In 1696, he defeated Ottoman-backed forces to gain access to the Black
Sea, and in 1723, Persia ceded Caspian coastline in exchange for military aid. However,
it was taking territory from Sweden on the Baltic Sea in 1721 that changed Russia. It
emerged as a European power.
The territory gained from Sweden became “Russia’s window into the West.” There,
Peter built a modern new capital named after himself—St. Petersburg—based on
European designs. He brought in European advisers and specialists, set up schools to
teach technical subjects, and established an academy of sciences to promote new
learning. Under his rule, Russia built factories and roads and established a professional
army and civil service on the European model. The government required officials to
dress in the Western style and to shave off their beards.
Russia’s modernizing efforts continued under another ruler, Catherine II, who led
from 1762 to 1796. She was also known as Catherine the Great. Like Peter the Great,
Catherine also founded schools and supported the arts and sciences. She promoted
Enlightenment principles of justice and good government. But like her predecessors,
17
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
she was an absolute ruler who governed with an iron fist, allowing few freedoms and
forcing Jews into a limited area called the Pale of Settlement.
The End of Monarchy By the time of Catherine’s reign, Russia faced a looming crisis
that would eventually bring down the czars. For more than a century, Russia’s serf
population had been growing. When Catherine came to power, there were about 10
million serfs serving the crown, the state, the church, private owners, and industrial and
mining enterprises.
Although this system had ceased to exist in western Europe by the 14th century,
serfdom first emerged in Russia during the Time of Troubles. Fleeing famine, peasants
went to towns and cities to find food. With a decreasing number of laborers to tend to
the fields, Russian leaders decided to tie peasants to the land.
Initially, serfs had some rights, but as landowners gained power, serfs lost what
little they had. Ultimately, they had no rights
and lived in terrible poverty. By the
mid-1700s, they were regarded as property.
Those who worked in industry were treated
like machinery that belonged to the
business. Sometimes serfs revolted, but their
uprisings were brutally repressed. For
example, in 1762, Catherine sent troops
with cannons to force serfs to end an
industrial strike. In 1800, around half of all
Russian peasants—around 10 million
people—were tied to the soil.
Although Russia was taking steps to modernize, its social system was still mired in
the past. Russia was the last European country to outlaw serfdom, in 1861, and by
18
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
then it was too late. In 1917, a revolution erupted and brought an end to the Russian
monarchy as a result. The Romanovs’ attempt to modernize Russia had been too
concentrated on science and technological developments and ignored socio-political
developments. This unbalance brought about the last of the European revolutions.
Summary
In this lesson, you learned about three powerful empires that ruled in Eurasia during
the period from 1400 to 1800. These empires responded to outside influences in
different way.
Cultural Interaction The Russians modernized by opening up to the West. The
Chinese and Japanese held fast to their own traditions and resisted cultural change.
Political Structures All three empires built strong, centralized states to govern their
territory. They created official bureaucracies and codes of law to make government
more effective. Nevertheless, most rulers—such as the Russian czars—held absolute
power.
Economic Structures Trade and commerce became increasingly important across
Eurasia. However, both China and Japan turned toward isolation. In doing so, they
greatly restricted foreign trade. They also lacked access to new ideas and innovations
that would support development.
Social Structures Eurasian states imposed class structures designed to maintain
social and political order. But rigid social systems, such as those in Japan and Russia,
left empires unprepared for change.
19
