Social Structure Theories
In regard to Cohen’s model of status frustration:
1.Provide an example of behavior of someone you knew in high school who fits this model. (No names, please.) (Link specific behaviors with specific elements of the theory.)
2.Explain w
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Chapter 7
Social Structure Theories of Crime I: Early Development and Strain Models of Crime
Summary This chapter focuses on the early development of social structure theory and different strain models of crime. Social structure theories vary from the previously discussed theories because they disregard any biological or psychological variations across individuals. Instead, social structure theories assume that crime is caused by the way that societies are structurally organized. In other words, social structure theories emphasize group differences (macro level) instead of individual differences (micro level). In 1893, Durkheim developed a general model of societal development based on the economic/labor distribution, in which societies are seen as evolving from a simplistic mechanical society toward a multilayered organic society. In the primitive mechanical societies all members essentially performed the same functions. These similarities lead to a strong uniformity in values, which Durkheim called the collective conscience. As societies progressed toward more organic societies, the division of labor became more specialized, but a type of solidarity still existed. This solidarity, referred to as organic solidarity, refers to the idea that people still depended on others in the society. However, Durkheim argued that the move from such universally shared roles in mechanical societies to such extremely specific roles in organic societal organization results in vast cultural differences, which leads to contrasts in normative values and attitudes across the group dynamic. When this occurs, the collective conscience weakens and preexisting solidarities among the members breaks down and the bonds are weakened, creating a climate for antisocial behavior. In addition, Durkheim claimed that with rapid change, the ability of society to serve as a regulatory mechanism breaks down and the selfish, greedy tendencies of individuals are uncontrolled, causing a state of anomie, or normlessness. Societies in such anomic states experience increases in many social problems, particularly criminal activity. This theoretical proposal was perhaps the most influential of modern structural perspectives on criminality. The chapter continues with the discussion of different forms of strain theory. Strain theories vary regarding the exact causes of frustration and how individuals cope with such frustrations, but they all identify strain on individuals as the primary causal factor in the development of criminality. The first strain theory discussed is Merton’s Strain Theory. Merton’s work was perhaps the most influential theoretical formulation in criminological literature. This is partially related to the timing of Merton’s proposal. The influence of the Great Depression was affecting virtually every aspect of life in the United States and people could relate Merton’s proposal to the fall of the economic structure during the time. Merton was heavily influenced by Durkheim’s concept of anomie, but he altered the meaning. For Merton, anomie was the disequilibrium in the emphasis between the goals and the means of societies. Specifically, Merton argued that everyone is socialized to believe in the American Dream. This socialization leads to the belief that everyone can achieve the American Dream as long as they work hard and pay their dues. However, the reality is, not everyone will be able to achieve the American Dream. It is this failure that leads to the majority of strain and stress. In addition, it is this idea of the American Dream then that leads to the de-emphasis of the means and an over-emphasis of the goals. In response, Merton identifies five adaptations to strain: conformity, ritualism, innovation,
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retreatism, and rebellion. It is the innovators, retreatist, and rebels that are the most likely to engage in criminal behavior. In 1955, Cohen presented a theory of gang formation using Merton’s strain theory as a basis for why individuals resort to such behavior. Specifically, Cohen argued young males from the lower classes are at a disadvantage in competing in school because they lack the normal interaction, socialization, and discipline instituted by educated parents of the middle-class. The failure to succeed leads to a rejection of the middle-class values. Cohen stated he believed that this tendency to reject middle-class values was the primary cause of gangs because a number of these lower-class individuals who had experienced the same strains and experiences form together into a group. In addition to this concept of the delinquent boy, Cohen proposed the concepts of college boy and corner boy. Five years later, Cloward and Ohlin proposed the Theory of Differential Opportunity. Like the previous propositions, they believe all youth were socialized to believe in the American Dream. What distinguishes their theory from previous theories is that they emphasized three different types of gangs that form based on the characteristics of the social structure in the neighborhood. The types of gangs that form are criminal gangs, conflict gangs, and retreatist gangs. The last strain theory discussed is Agnew’s General Strain Theory. General Strain Theory assumes that people of all social classes and economic positions deal with frustrations in routine daily life. Like previous models, general strain theory focuses on the failure to achieve positively valued goals; additionally, the theory emphasizes two additional categories of strain: presentation of noxious stimuli and removal of positively valued stimuli. Ultimately, these three categories of stain will lead to stress and this results in a propensity to feel anger. It is predicted that to the extent that three sources of strain cause feelings of anger in an individual, that is the extent to which he or she is predisposed to commit crime and deviance. The chapter concludes with the discussion of policy implications related to strain theory. The primary policy implications are related to intervention programs for high-risk youth that focus on educational and/or vocational training and developing healthy coping mechanisms. Adaptations to Strain
• Conformity • Ritualism • Innovation • Retreatism • Rebellion
Accept Reject
G oa
ls
R ej
ec t
A cc
ep t
New Means
N ew
G oa
ls
Conformity Innovation
Ritualism Retreatism
Rebellion
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! Conclusions Theory Concepts Proponents Key Propositions
Early European Social Structure Theories
Relative Deprivation Quetelet Areas that have the greatest differences in wealth in close proximity (i.e., very poor living close to very rich) tend to have the highest crime rates.
Guerry Violent crime rates tend to be highest in poor areas, whereas property crimes tend to cluster in more wealthy areas.
Early Strain Theory Mechanical vs. Organic Societies Anomie Collective Conscience
Durkheim Societies evolve from mechanical to organic, with the former having a limited division of labor/roles, which strengthens the “collective conscience” of members; as the division of labor increases in the move to a more organic society, the collective conscience breaks down and results in “normlessness” or anomie.
Merton’s Strain Theory
Anomie (different meaning from Durkheim’s) Adaptations to Strain
Merton U.S. economic structure causes a differential emphasis on the goals (“wealth”) as compared to the conventional means of obtaining the goals, which results in anomie; individuals with limited access to obtain success and
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wealth adapt to such strain in different ways, with many innovating ways to achieve the goals via illegal methods instead of through legitimate means.
Lower-Class Frustration Theory
Reaction Formation Corner Boy College Boy Delinquent Boy
Cohen Lower-class youth are not prepared for school and are at a disadvantage because schools are based on middle-class norms; due to failure at school, they hand with other failures and defy the middle-class norms/rules (“reaction formation”), which leads to gang formation; different adaptations to this frustration exist, with delinquent boy being the most likely to commit crimes.
Differential Opportunities Theory
Criminal Gangs Conflict Gangs Retreatist Gangs
Cloward & Ohlin Gangs in lower-class city areas are a manifestation of the type of neighborhood structure that exists there, as well as the ability of youth to have the opportunity to be accepted by adult criminal enterprises; some youth are given opportunities to engage in illegal structures (e.g., mafia) and others are blocked from these illegitimate opportunities as well as legitimate ones.
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General Strain Theory Failure to Obtain Goals Loss of Positive Stimuli Presentation of Noxious Stimuli Coping Mechanisms (or lack thereof)
Agnew Greatly expanded the sources of strain to include everything that had been presented by previous models (economics, school frustration, etc.), and also added much more in the sense of having constant stressors (noxious stimuli) and the loss of positive aspects in one’s life; also added the component of coping mechanisms and the ability of individuals to deal with stress in a healthy way.
ssay or paragraph of at least 300 words.
•Use concrete examples/details and avoid generalities.
•Address all questions.
•Use proper grammar and punctuation.
•If you researched your topic and are using information from what you learned, remember to cite your sources.
•Do not plagiarize.
