December 2022 – Page 2281 – Homework Handlers

Descriptive And Inferential Statistics Worksheet

December 1, 2022/in Uncategorized /by SK

Title

ABC/123 Version X

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics Worksheet

PSYCH/625 Version 5

University of Phoenix Material

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics Worksheet

Complete both Part A and Part B below.

Part A

Before completing the following questions, be sure to have read Appendix C and the Statistical Software Resources at the ends of Chapters 2 and 3 from Statistics Plain and Simple.

Highlight the required answers to the question in your Excel output.

1. Using Microsoft® Excel®, enter the following data from the 40 participants by first creating a variable labeled “Score”. Next, compute the mean, median, and mode for the following set of 40 reading scores:

SUMMARY

31	32	43	42
24	34	25	44
23	43	24	36
25	41	23	28
14	21	24	17
25	23	44	21
13	26	23	32
12	26	14	42
14	31	52	12
23	42	32	34

2. Imagine you are the assistant manager of a fast food store. Part of your job is to report which special is selling best to the store manager at the end of each day. Use your knowledge of descriptive statistics and write one paragraph to let the store manager know what happened today. Use the following data.

Special number	Sold	Cost
Huge Burger	20	$2.95
Baby Burger	18	$1.49
Chicken Littles	25	$3.50
Porker Burger	19	$2.95
Yummy Burger	17	$1.99
Coney Dog	20	$1.99
Total specials sold	119

3. Suppose you are working with a data set that has some different (much larger or much smaller than the rest of the data) scores. What measure of central tendency (mean, median or mode) would you use and why?

4. During the course of a semester, 10 students in Mr. Smith’s class took three exams. Use Microsoft® Excel® to compute all the descriptive statistics for the following set of three test scores over the course of a semester. Which test had the highest average score? Which test had the smallest amount of variability? How would you interpret the differences between exams, and note the range, means, and standard deviations over time?

Test 1	Test 2	Test 3
90	94	95
65	75	90
51	77	91
88	84	93
72	88	92
75	84	90
60	75	83
78	85	90
80	80	92
84	88	94

5. For each of the following, indicate whether you would use a pie, line, or bar chart, and why:

a. The proportion of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors in a particular university

b. Change in GPA over four semesters

c. Number of applicants for four different jobs

d. Reaction time to different stimuli

e. Number of scores in each of 10 categories

6. Using the data from question 1, create a frequency table and a histogram in Microsoft® Excel®.

Part B

Answer the questions below. Be specific and provide examples when relevant.

Cite any sources consistent with APA guidelines.

Question	Answer
What are statistics and how are they used in the behavioral sciences? Your answer should be 100 to 175 words.
Providing examples of each, compare and contrast the four levels of measurement. Your answer should be 175 to 350 words.
Differentiate between descriptive and inferential statistics. What information do they provide? What are their similarities and differences? Your answer should be 175 to 350 words.

Psychotherapies

December 1, 2022/in Uncategorized /by SK

Gateway THEME Psychotherapies are based on a common core of therapeutic principles. Medical therapies treat the physical causes of psychological disorders. In many cases, these approaches are complementary.

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9781285519517, Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior with Concept Maps and Reviews, Thirteenth Edition, Coon/Mitterer – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

Joe stared at some ducks through the blinds in his psychology professor’s office. They were quacking as they explored the campus pond. As psychologists, we meet many students with personal problems. Still, Joe’s teacher was surprised to see him at her office door. His excellent work in class and his healthy, casual appearance left her unprepared for his first words. “I feel like I’m losing my mind,” he said. “Can I talk to you?”

Over the next hour, Joe described his own personal hell. In a sense, he was like the ducks outside, appearing peaceful on the surface, but madly paddling underneath. He was working hard to hide a world of crippling fear, anxiety, and depression. At work, he was deathly afraid of talking to coworkers and cus- tomers. His social phobia led to frequent absenteeism and embarrassing behavior. At school, Joe felt “dif- ferent” and was sure that other students could tell he was “weird.” Several disastrous romances had left him terrified of women. Lately, he had been so depressed that he thought of suicide.

Joe’s request for help was a turning point. At a time when he was becoming his own worst enemy, Joe realized he needed help. In Joe’s case, that person was a talented clinical psychologist to whom his teacher referred him. With psychotherapy (and some temporary help from an antidepression medication), the psy- chologist was able to help Joe come to grips with his emotions and regain his balance.

This chapter discusses methods used to alleviate problems like Joe’s. We will begin with a look at the origins of modern therapy before describing therapies that emphasize the value of viewing personal prob- lems with insight and changing thought patterns. Then, we will focus on behavior therapies, which directly change troublesome actions. After that, we will explore medical therapies, which are based on psychiatric drugs and other physical treatments. We conclude with a look at some contemporary issues in therapy.

Gateway QUESTIONS 15.1 How did psychotherapy originate? 15.2 Is Freudian psychoanalysis still used? 15.3 How do psychotherapies differ? 15.4 What are the major humanistic therapies? 15.5 How does cognitive therapy change thoughts

and emotions? 15.6 What is behavior therapy? 15.7 What role do operant principles play in

behavior therapy?

15.8 How do psychiatrists treat psychological disorders?

15.9 Are various psychotherapies effective, and what do they have in common?

15.10 What will therapy be like in the future? 15.11 How are behavioral principles applied to

everyday problems and how could a person find professional help?

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Therapies

Chapter 15512

Origins of Therapy— Bored Out of Your Skull

Gateway Question 15.1: How did psychotherapy originate? Fortunately, the odds are that you will not experience problems as serious as those of Joe, the student we just met. But if you did, what help is available? In most cases, it would be some form of psycho- therapy, a psychological technique that can bring about positive changes in personality, behavior, or personal adjustment. It might, as with Joe, also include a medical therapy. Let’s begin with a brief history of mental health care, including a discussion of psychoanaly- sis, the first fully developed psychotherapy.

Early treatments for mental problems give good reasons to appreciate modern therapies (Sharf, 2012). Archaeological find- ings dating to the Stone Age suggest that most primitive approaches were marked by fear and superstitious belief in demons, witchcraft, and magic. If Joe were unlucky enough to have been born several thousand years ago, his “treatment” might have left him feeling “bored.” You see, one of the more dramatic “cures” practiced by primitive “therapists” was a process called trepanning (treh-PAN- ing), also sometimes spelled trephining (Terry, 2006). In modern usage, trepanning is any surgical procedure in which a hole is bored in the skull. In the hands of primitive therapists, it meant boring, chipping, or bashing holes in a patient’s head. Presumably, this was done to relieve pressure or release evil spirits (• Figure 15.1).

Joe would not have been much better off during the Middle Ages. Then, treatments for mental illness in Europe focused on demonology, the study of demons and persons plagued by spirits. Medieval “therapists” commonly blamed abnormal behavior on supernatural forces, such as possession by the devil, or on curses from witches and wizards. As a cure, they used exorcism to “cast out evil spirits.” For the fortunate, exorcism was a religious ritual. More often, physical torture was used to make the body an inhospitable place for the devil to reside.

One reason for the rise of demonology may lie in ergot- ism (AIR-got-ism), a psychotic-like condition caused by ergot poisoning. In the Middle Ages, rye (grain) fields were often infested with ergot fungus. Ergot, we now know, is a natural source of LSD and other mind-altering chemicals. Eating tainted bread could have caused symptoms that were easily mistaken for bewitchment or madness. Pinch- ing sensations, muscle twitches, facial spasms, delirium, and hallucinations are all signs of ergot poisoning (Matossian, 1982). Modern analyses of “demonic possession” suggest that many victims may have been suffering from epilepsy, schizophrenia (Mirsky & Duncan, 2005), dissociative dis- orders (van der Hart, Lierens, & Goodwin, 1996), and depression (Thase, 2006). Thus, many people “treated” by demonologists may have been doubly victimized.

Then, in 1793, a French doctor named Philippe Pinel changed the Bicêtre Asylum in Paris from a squalid “mad- house” into a mental hospital by unchaining the inmates (Harris, 2003). Finally, the emotionally disturbed were

regarded as “mentally ill” and given compassionate treatment. Although it has been more than 200 years since Pinel began more humane treatment, the process of improving care continues today.

When was psychotherapy developed? The first true psychother- apy was created by Sigmund Freud little more than 100 years ago ( Jacobs, 2003). As a physician in Vienna, Freud was intrigued by cases of hysteria. People suffering from hysteria have physical symptoms (such as paralysis or numbness) for which no physical causes can be found.

Such problems are now called somatoform disorders, as discussed in Chapter 14, pages 499–501.

BRIDGES

• Figure 15.1 Primitive “treatment” for mental disorders sometimes took the form of boring a hole in the skull. This example shows signs of healing, which means the “patient” actually survived the treatment. Many didn’t.

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(left) Many early asylums were no more than prisons with inmates held in chains. (right) One late 19th-century “treatment” was based on swinging the patient in a harness—presumably to calm the patient’s nerves.

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Therapies 513

Psychotherapy Any psychological technique used to facilitate positive changes in a person’s personality, behavior, or adjustment.

Demonology In medieval Europe, the study of demons and the treatment of persons “possessed” by demons.

Hysteria (now called somatoform disorders) An outdated term describing people with physical symptoms (such as paralysis or numbness) for which no physical causes can be found.

Psychoanalysis A Freudian therapy that emphasizes the use of free association, dream interpretation, resistances, and transference to uncover unconscious conflicts.

Free association In psychoanalysis, the technique of having a client say anything that comes to mind, regardless of how embarrassing or unimportant it may seem.

Resistance A blockage in the flow of free association; topics the client resists thinking or talking about.

Slowly, Freud became convinced that hysteria was related to deeply hidden unconscious conflicts and developed psychoanalysis in order to help patients gain insight into those conflicts (Knafo, 2009). Because it is the “granddaddy” of more modern therapies, let’s examine psychoanalysis in some detail.

Psychoanalysis—Expedition into the Unconscious

Gateway Question 15.2: Is Freudian psychoanalysis still used? Isn’t psychoanalysis the therapy for which the patient lies on a couch? Freud’s patients usually reclined on a couch during therapy, while Freud sat out of sight taking notes and offering interpretations. This procedure was supposed to encourage a free flow of thoughts and images from the unconscious. However, it is the least impor- tant element of psychoanalysis, and many modern analysts have abandoned it.

How did Freud treat emotional problems? Freud’s theory stressed that “neurosis” and “hysteria” are caused by repressed memories, motives, and conflicts—particularly those stemming from instinctual drives for sex and aggression. Although they are hidden, these forces remain active in the personality and cause some people to develop rigid ego defenses and compulsive, self- defeating behavior. Thus, the main goal of psychoanalysis is to reduce internal conflicts that lead to emotional suffering (Fayek, 2010).

Freud developed four basic techniques to uncover the uncon- scious roots of neurosis (Freud, 1949). These are free association, dream analysis, analysis of resistance, and analysis of transference.

Free Association The basis for free association is saying whatever comes to mind without worrying whether ideas are painful, embarrassing, or illogical. Thoughts are simply allowed to move freely from one idea to the next, without self-censorship. The purpose of free associa- tion is to lower defenses so that unconscious thoughts and feelings can emerge (Hoffer & Youngren, 2004).

Dream Analysis Freud believed that dreams disguise consciously unacceptable feel- ings and forbidden desires in dream form (Rock, 2004). The psy- choanalyst can use this “royal road to the unconscious” to help the patient work past the obvious, visible meaning of the dream (its manifest content) to uncover the hidden, symbolic meaning (its latent content). This is achieved by analyzing dream symbols (images that have personal or emotional meanings).

Suppose that a young man dreams of pulling a pistol from his waistband and aiming at a target as his wife watches. The pistol repeatedly fails to discharge, and the man’s wife laughs at him. Freud might have seen this as an indication of repressed feelings of sexual impotence, with the gun serving as a disguised image of the penis.

See Chapter 5, pages 178–179 and 198–199, for more information of Freudian dream theory.

BRIDGES

Analysis of Resistance When free associating or describing dreams, patients may resist talking about or thinking about certain topics. Such resistances (blockages in the flow of ideas) reveal particularly important unconscious conflicts. As analysts become aware of resistances, they bring them to the patient’s awareness so the patient can deal with them realistically. Rather than being roadblocks in therapy, resistances can be clues and challenges (Engle & Arkowitz, 2006).

Pioneering psychotherapist Sigmund Freud’s famous couch.

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Chapter 15514

Analysis of Transference Transference is the tendency to “transfer” feelings to a therapist similar to those the patient had for important persons in his or her past. At times, the patient may act as if the analyst is a rejecting father, an unloving or overprotective mother, or a former lover, for example. As the patient re-experiences repressed emotions, the therapist can help the patient recognize and understand them. Troubled persons often provoke anger, rejection, boredom, criti- cism, and other negative reactions from others. Effective therapists learn to avoid reacting as others do and playing the patient’s habit- ual resistance and transference “games.” This, too, contributes to therapeutic change (Fayek, 2010).

Psychoanalysis Today What is the status of psychoanalysis today? Traditional psychoanalysis was open-ended, calling for three to five therapy sessions a week, often for many years. Today, most patients are seen only once or twice per week, but treatment may still go on for years (Friedman et al., 1998). Because of the huge amounts of time and money this requires, psychoanalysts have become relatively rare. Nevertheless, psycho- analysis made a major contribution to modern therapies by highlight- ing the importance of unconscious conflicts (Friedman, 2006).

Many therapists have switched to doing time-limited brief psy- chodynamic therapy, which uses direct questioning to reveal unconscious conflicts (Binder, 2004). Modern therapists also actively provoke emotional reactions that will lower defenses and provide insights. Interestingly, brief therapy appears to accelerate recovery. Patients seem to realize that they need to get to the heart of their problems quickly (Messer & Kaplan, 2004).

Interpersonal Psychotherapy One example of a brief dynamic therapy is interpersonal psycho- therapy (IPT), which was first developed to help depressed people improve their relationships with others (Teyber & McClure, 2011). Research has confirmed that IPT is effective for depressive disorders, as well as eating disorders, substance abuse, social pho- bias, and personality disorders (Fiore et al., 2008; Hoffart, 2005; Prochaska & Norcross, 2010; Talbot & Gamble, 2008).

Liona’s therapy is a good example of IPT (Brown & Barlow, 2011). Liona was suffering from depression that a therapist helped her trace to a conflict with her parents. When her father was absent, Liona adopted the role of her mother’s protector and friend. How- ever, when her father was home, she was expected to resume her role as a daughter. She was angry with her father for frequently abandon- ing her mother and upset about having to switch roles so often. Liona’s IPT sessions (which sometimes included her mother) focused on clarifying Liona’s family roles. Her mood improved a lot after her mother urged her to “stick to being herself.”

Is Traditional Psychoanalysis Effective? The development of newer, more streamlined dynamic therapies is in part due to questions about whether traditional psychoanalysis “works.” In a classic criticism, Hans Eysenck (1994) suggested that

psychoanalysis simply takes so long that patients experience a spontaneous remission of symptoms (improvement due to the mere passage of time).

How seriously should the possibility of spontaneous remission be taken? It’s true that problems ranging from hyperactivity to anxiety do improve with the passage of time. Regardless, researchers have confirmed that psychoanalysis does, in fact, produce improvement in a majority of patients (Doidge, 1997).

The real value of Eysenck’s critique is that it encouraged psy- chologists to try new ideas and techniques. Researchers began to ask, “When psychoanalysis works, why does it work? Which parts of it are essential and which are unnecessary?” Modern therapists have given surprisingly varied answers to these questions. Let’s move on to survey some of the ways modern therapies differ. Later, we will acquaint you with some of the therapies currently in use.

Dimensions of Therapy— Let Me Count the Ways

Gateway Question 15.3: How do psychotherapies differ? In contrast to medical therapies, which are physical in nature, psychotherapy refers to any psychological technique that can bring about positive changes in personality, behavior, or personal adjustment. Psychotherapy is usually based on a dialogue between therapists and their clients, although some therapists also use learning principles to directly alter troublesome behaviors (Corsini & Wedding, 2011).

Therapists have many approaches to choose from: psycho- analysis, which we just discussed, as well as client-centered ther- apy, Gestalt therapy, cognitive therapy, and behavior therapy—to name but a few. As we will see throughout the chapter, each therapy emphasizes different concepts and methods. For this reason, the best approach for a particular person or problem may vary (Prochaska & Norcross, 2010).

Dimensions of Psychotherapy The terms in the list that follows describe some basic aspects of various psychotherapies (Prochaska & Norcross, 2010; Sharf, 2012). Notice that more than one term may apply to a particular therapy. For example, it is possible to have a directive, action- oriented, open-ended group therapy or a nondirective, individual, insight-oriented, time-limited therapy:

• Insight vs. action therapy: Does the therapy aim to bring clients to a deeper understanding of their thoughts, emotions, and behavior? Or is it designed to bring about direct changes in troublesome thoughts, habits, feelings, or behavior, without seeking insight into their origins or meanings?

• Directive vs. nondirective therapy: Does the therapist provide strong guidance and advice? Or does the therapist merely assist clients, who are responsible for solving their own problems?

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Transference The tendency of patients to transfer feelings to a therapist that correspond to those the patient had for important persons in his or her past.

Brief psychodynamic therapy A modern therapy based on psychoanalytic theory but designed to produce insights more quickly.

Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) A brief dynamic psychotherapy designed to help people by improving their relationships with other people.

Spontaneous remission Improvement of symptoms due to the mere passage of time.

• Individual vs. group therapy: Does the therapy involve one therapist with one client? Or do several clients participate at the same time?

• Open-ended vs. time-limited therapy: Is the therapy open- ended? Or is it begun with the expectation that it will last only a limited number of sessions?

Myths Psychotherapy has often been depicted as a complete personal transformation—a sort of “major overhaul” of the psyche. But therapy is not equally effective for all problems. Chances of improvement are fairly good for phobias, low self-esteem, some sexual problems, and marital conflicts. More complex problems can be difficult to solve and may, as in Joe’s case, require medical treatment as well. The most extreme cases may not respond to psychotherapy at all, leaving a medical therapy as the only viable treatment option.

In short, it is often unrealistic to expect psychotherapy to undo a person’s entire past. For many people, the major benefit of psy- chotherapy is that it provides comfort, support, and a way to make constructive changes (Bloch, 2006; Burns, 2010). Yet, even when problems are severe, therapy may help a person gain a new perspec- tive or learn behaviors to better cope with life. Psychotherapy can be hard work for both clients and therapists, but when it succeeds, few activities are more worthwhile.

It’s also a mistake to think that psychotherapy is used only to solve problems or end a crisis. Even if a person is already doing well, therapy can be a way to promote personal growth (Bloch, 2006). Therapists in the positive psychology movement are developing ways to help people make use of their personal strengths. Rather than trying to fix what is “wrong” with a person, they seek to nur- ture positive traits and actively solve problems (Compton, 2005). ■ Table 15.1 lists some of the elements of positive mental health that therapists seek to restore or promote. Before we dig deeper into some of the different types of psychotherapy, let’s enhance your positive academic health with a short review.

Elements of Positive Mental Health

• Personal autonomy and independence

• A sense of identity

• Feelings of personal worth

• Skilled interpersonal communication

• Sensitivity, nurturance, and trust

• Genuineness and honesty with self and other

• Self-control and personal responsibility

• Committed and loving personal relationships

• Capacity to forgive others and oneself

• Personal values and a purpose in life

• Self-awareness and motivation for personal growth

• Adaptive coping strategies for managing stresses and crises

• Fulfillment and satisfaction in work

• Good habits of physical health

■ TABLE 15.1

Adapted from Bergin, 1991; Bloch, 2006.

Knowledge Builder Treating Psychological Distress

RECITE 1. One modern scientific explanation of medieval “possessions” by

“demons” is related to the effects of a. ergot poisoning b. trepanning c. exorcism

d. unconscious transference 2. Pinel is famous for his use of exorcism. T or F? 3. In psychoanalysis, an emotional attachment to the therapist is

called: a. free association b. manifest association c. resistance

d. transference Match:

4. _____ Directive therapies A. Change behavior 5. _____ Action therapies B. Place responsibility on the client 6. _____ Insight therapies C. The client is guided strongly 7. _____ Nondirective therapies D. Seek understanding

8. An approach that is incompatible with insight therapy is a. individual therapy b. action therapy c. nondirective

therapy d. time-limited psychotherapy

REFLECT Think Critically

9. According to Freud’s concept of transference, patients “transfer” their feelings onto the psychoanalyst. In light of this idea, to what might the term countertransference refer?

Self-Reflect

The use of trepanning, demonology, and exorcism all implied that the mentally ill are “cursed.” To what extent are the mentally ill rejected and stigmatized today?

Try to free associate (aloud) for 10 minutes. How difficult was it? Did anything interesting surface?

Can you explain, in your own words, the role of dream analysis, resistances, and transference in psychoanalysis?

Make a list describing what you think it means to be mentally healthy. How well does your list match the items in ■ Table 15.1?

Answers: 1. a 2. F 3. d 4. C 5. A 6. D 7. B 8. d 9. Psychoanalysts (and therapists in general) are also human. They may transfer their own unresolved, unconscious feelings onto their patients. This sometimes hampers the effectiveness of therapy (Kim & Gray, 2009).

Chapter 15516

Humanistic Therapies— Restoring Human Potential

Gateway Question 15.4: What are the major humanistic therapies? When most people picture psychotherapists at work, they imagine them talking with their clients. Let’s sample a variety of talk- oriented approaches. Humanistic therapies tend to be insight thera- pies intended to help clients gain deeper insight into their thoughts, emotions, and behavior. In contrast, cognitive therapies tend to be action therapies less concerned with insight than with helping peo- ple change harmful thinking patterns. Let’s start with some insight.

Better self-knowledge was the goal of traditional psychoanaly- sis. However, Freud claimed that his patients could expect only to change their “hysterical misery into common unhappiness”! Humanistic therapists are more optimistic, believing that humans have a natural urge to seek health and self-growth. Most assume that it is possible for people to use their potentials fully and live rich, rewarding lives. In this section, we’ll discuss three of the most common humanistic therapies: client-centered therapy, existential therapy, and Gestalt therapy.

Client-Centered Therapy What is client-centered therapy? How is it different from psychoanaly- sis? Whereas psychoanalysis is directive and based on insights from the unconscious, client-centered therapy (also called person- centered therapy) is nondirective and based on insights from con- scious thoughts and feelings (Brodley, 2006; Wampold, 2007). The psychoanalyst tends to take a position of authority, stating what dreams, thoughts, or memories “mean.” In contrast, Carl Rogers (1902–1987), who originated client-centered therapy, believed that what is right or valuable for the therapist may be wrong for the cli- ent. (Rogers preferred the term “client” to “patient” because “patient” implies that a person is “sick” and needs to be “cured.”) Conse- quently, in client-centered therapy, the client determines what will be discussed during each session.

If the client runs things, what does the therapist do? The therapist cannot “fix” the client. Instead, the client must actively seek to solve his or her problems (Whitton, 2003). The therapist’s job is to create a safe “atmosphere of growth” by providing opportunities for change.

How do therapists create such an atmosphere? Rogers believed that effective therapists maintain four basic conditions. First, the therapist offers the client unconditional positive regard (unshak- able personal acceptance). The therapist refuses to react with shock, dismay, or disapproval to anything the client says or feels. Total acceptance by the therapist is the first step to self-acceptance by the client.

Second, the therapist attempts to achieve genuine empathy by trying to see the world through the client’s eyes and feeling some part of what the client is feeling.

As a third essential condition, the therapist strives to be authen- tic (genuine and honest). The therapist must not hide behind a professional role. Rogers believed that phony fronts destroy the growth atmosphere sought in client-centered therapy.

Fourth, the therapist does not make interpretations, propose solutions, or offer advice. Instead, the therapist reflects (rephrases, summarizes, or repeats) the client’s thoughts and feelings. This enables the therapist to act as a psychological “mirror” so clients can see themselves more clearly. Rogers theorized that a person armed with a realistic self-image and greater self-acceptance will gradually discover solutions to life’s problems.

Existential Therapy According to the existentialists, “being in the world” (existence) creates deep anxiety. Each of us must deal with the realities of death. We must face the fact that we create our private world by making choices. We must overcome isolation on a vast and indif- ferent planet. Most of all, we must confront feelings of meaning- lessness (Schneider, Galvin, & Serlin, 2009).

What do these concerns have to do with psychotherapy? Existen- tial therapy focuses on the problems of existence, such as meaning, choice, and responsibility. Like client-centered therapy, it pro- motes self-knowledge. However, there are important differences. Client-centered therapy seeks to uncover a “true self ” hidden behind a screen of defenses. In contrast, existential therapy empha- sizes free will, the human ability to make choices. Accordingly, existential therapists believe you can choose to become the person you want to be.

Existential therapists try to give clients the courage to make rewarding and socially constructive choices. Typically, therapy focuses on death, freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness, the “ulti- mate concerns” of existence (van Deurzen & Kenward, 2005). These universal human challenges include an awareness of one’s mortality, the responsibility that comes with freedom to choose, being alone in your own private world, and the need to create meaning in your life.

One example of existential therapy is Victor Frankl’s logother- apy, which emphasizes the need to find and maintain meaning in

Psychotherapist Carl Rogers, who originated client- centered therapy.

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Client-centered (or person-centered) therapy A nondirective therapy based on insights gained from conscious thoughts and feelings; emphasizes accepting one’s true self.

Unconditional positive regard An unqualified, unshakable acceptance of another person.

Empathy A capacity for taking another’s point of view; the ability to feel what another is feeling.

Authenticity In Carl Rogers’s terms, the ability of a therapist to be genuine and honest about his or her own feelings.

Reflection In client-centered therapy, the process of rephrasing or repeating thoughts and feelings expressed by clients so they can become aware of what they are saying.

Existential therapy An insight therapy that focuses on the elemental problems of existence, such as death, meaning, choice, and responsibility; emphasizes making courageous life choices.

Gestalt therapy An approach that focuses on immediate experience and awareness to help clients rebuild thinking, feeling, and acting into connected wholes; emphasizes the integration of fragmented experiences.

Cognitive therapy A therapy directed at changing the maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, and feelings that underlie emotional and behavioral problems.

life. Frankl (1904–1997) based his approach on experiences he had as a prisoner in a Nazi concentration camp. In the camp, Frankl saw countless prisoners break down as they were stripped of all hope and human dignity (Frankl, 1955). Those who sur- vived with their sanity did so because they managed to hang on to a sense of meaning (logos). Even in less dire circumstances, a sense of purpose in life adds greatly to psychological well-being (Prochaska & Norcross, 2010).

What does the existential therapist do? The therapist helps clients discover self-imposed limitations in personal identity. To be suc- cessful, the client must fully accept the challenge of changing his or her life (Bretherton & Orner, 2004). Interestingly, Buddhists seek a similar state that they call “radical acceptance” (Brach, 2003).

A key aspect of existential therapy is confrontation, in which clients are challenged to be mindful of their values and choices and to take responsibility for the quality of their existence (Claessens, 2009). An important part of confrontation is the unique, intense, here-and-now encounter between two human beings. When existential therapy is successful, it brings about a renewed sense of purpose and a reappraisal of what’s important in life. Some clients even experience an emotional rebirth, as if they had survived a close brush with death. As Marcel Proust wrote, “The real voyage of discovery consists not in seeing new landscapes but in having new eyes.”

Gestalt Therapy Gestalt therapy is based on the idea that perception, or awareness, is disjointed and incomplete in maladjusted persons. The German word Gestalt means “whole,” or “complete.” Gestalt therapy helps people rebuild thinking, feeling, and acting into connected wholes. This is achieved by expanding personal awareness; by accepting responsibility for one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions; and by fill- ing in gaps in experience (Masquelier, 2006).

What are “gaps in experience”? Gestalt therapists believe that we often shy away from expressing or “owning” upsetting feelings. This creates a gap in self-awareness that may become a barrier to personal growth. For example, a person who feels anger after the death of a parent might go for years without fully expressing it. This and similar threatening gaps may impair emotional health.

The Gestalt approach is more directive than client-centered or existential therapy, and it is less insight-oriented and instead emphasizes immediate experience. Working either one-to-one or in a group setting, the Gestalt therapist encourages clients to become more aware of their moment-to-moment thoughts, per- ceptions, and emotions (Staemmler, 2004). Rather than discussing why clients feel guilt, anger, fear, or boredom, the therapist encour- ages them to have these feelings in the “here and now” and become fully aware of them. The therapist promotes awareness by drawing attention to a client’s posture, voice, eye movements, and hand gestures. Clients may also be asked to exaggerate vague feelings until they become clear. Gestalt therapists believe that expressing such feelings allows people to “take care of unfinished business” and break through emotional impasses (O’Leary, 2006).

Gestalt therapy is often associated with the work of Fritz Perls (1969). According to Perls, emotional health comes from knowing what you want to do, not dwelling on what you should do, ought to do, or should want to do (Brownell, 2010). In other words, emo- tional health comes from taking full responsibility for one’s feel- ings and actions. For example, it means changing “I can’t” to “I won’t,” or “I must” to “I choose to.”

How does Gestalt therapy help people discover their real wants? Above all else, Gestalt therapy emphasizes present experience (Yontef, 2007). Clients are urged to stop intellectualizing and talking about feelings. Instead, they learn to live now; live here; stop imagining; experience the real; stop unnecessary thinking; taste and see; express rather than explain, justify, or judge; give in to unpleasantness and pain just as to pleasure; and surrender to being as you are. Gestalt therapists believe that, paradoxically, the best way to change is to become who you really are (Brownell, 2010).

Cognitive Therapy—Think Positive!

Gateway Question 15.5: How does cognitive therapy change thoughts and emotions? Whereas humanistic therapies usually seek to foster insight, cogni- tive therapies usually try to directly change what people think, believe, and feel, and, as a consequence, how they act. In general, cognitive therapy helps clients change thinking patterns that lead to troublesome emotions or behaviors (Davey, 2008; Power, 2010).

In practice, how does cognitive therapy differ from humanistic therapy? Janice is a hoarder whose home is crammed full with things she has acquired over two decades. If she seeks help from a therapist concerned with insight, she will try to better understand why she began collecting stuff. In contrast, if she seeks help from a cognitive

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therapist, she may spend little time examining her past. Instead, she will work to actively change her thoughts and beliefs about hoard- ing. With either approach, the goal is to give up hoarding. Further, in practice, humanistic therapies often also result in active change and cognitive therapies often also yield deeper insight.

Cognitive therapy has been successfully used as a remedy for many problems, ranging from generalized anxiety disorder and post- traumatic stress disorder to marital distress and anger (Butler et al., 2006). For example, compulsive hand washing can be greatly reduced by changing a client’s thoughts and beliefs about dirt and contamina- tion (Jones & Menzies, 1998). Cognitive therapy has been especially successful in treating depression (Hollon, Stewart, & Strunk, 2006). Joe’s clinical psychologist relied on cognitive therapy to help lift Joe (who could forget Joe?) out of his depression.

Cognitive Therapy for Depression As you may recall from Chapter 13, cognitive psychologists believe that negative, self-defeating thoughts underlie depression. According to Aaron Beck (1991), depressed persons see them- selves, the world, and the future in negative terms because of major distortions in thinking. The first is selective perception, which refers to perceiving only certain stimuli in a larger array. If five good things and three bad things happen during the day, depressed people focus only on the bad. A second thinking error in depression is overgeneralization, the tendency to think that an upsetting event applies to other, unrelated situations. An example would be Joe’s considering himself a total failure, or completely worthless, if he were to lose a part-time job or fail a test. To com- plete the picture, depressed persons tend to magnify the impor- tance of undesirable events by engaging in all-or-nothing think- ing: they see events as completely good or bad, right or wrong, and themselves as either successful or failing miserably (Lam & Mok, 2008).

How do cognitive therapists alter such patterns? Cognitive thera- pists make a step-by-step effort to correct negative thoughts that lead to depression or similar problems. At first, clients are taught to recognize and keep track of their own thoughts. The client and therapist then look for ideas and beliefs that cause depression, anger, and avoidance. For example, here’s how Joe’s therapist began to challenge his all-or-nothing thinking:

Joe: I’m feeling really depressed today. No one wants to hire me, and I can’t even get a date. I feel completely incompetent!

Therapist: I see. The fact that you are currently unemployed and don’t have a girlfriend proves that you are completely and utterly incompetent?

Joe: Well…I can see that doesn’t add up.

Next, clients are asked to gather information to test their beliefs. For instance, a depressed person might list his or her activities for a week. The list is then used to challenge all-or-nothing thoughts, such as “I had a terrible week” or “I’m a complete failure.” With more coaching, clients learn to alter their thoughts in ways that improve their moods, actions, and relationships.

Cognitive therapy is at least as effective as drugs for treating many cases of depression (Butler et al., 2006; Eisendrath, Chartier, & McLane, 2011). More importantly, people who have adopted new thinking patterns are less likely to become depressed again—a benefit that drugs can’t impart (Dozois & Dobson, 2004; Hollon, Stewart, & Strunk, 2006).

In an alternate approach, cognitive therapists look for an absence of effective coping skills and thinking patterns, not for the presence of self-defeating thoughts (Dobson, Backs-Dermott, & Dozois, 2000). The aim is to teach clients how to cope with anger, depression, shyness, stress, and similar problems. Stress inocula- tion, which was described in Chapter 13, is a good example of this approach. Joe used it to weaken his social phobia.

Cognitive therapy is a rapidly expanding specialty. Before we leave the topic, let’s explore another widely used cognitive therapy.

Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) attempts to change irrational beliefs that cause emotional problems. According to Albert Ellis (1913–2007), the basic idea of REBT is as easy as A-B-C (Ellis, 1995, Ellis & Ellis, 2011). Ellis assumes that people become unhappy and develop self-defeating habits because they have unrealistic or faulty beliefs.

How are beliefs important? Ellis analyzes problems in this way: The letter A stands for an activating experience, which the person assumes to be the cause of C, an emotional consequence. For instance, a person who is rejected (the activating experience) feels depressed, threatened, or hurt (the consequence). Rational-emotive behavior therapy shows the client that the real problem is what comes between A and C: In between is B, the client’s irrational and unrealistic beliefs. In this example, an unrealistic belief leading to unnecessary suffering is, “I must be loved and approved by every- one at all times.” REBT holds that events do not cause us to have feelings. We feel as we do because of our beliefs (Dryden, 2011; Kottler & Shepard, 2011). (For some examples, see “Ten Irrational Beliefs—Which Do You Hold?”)

The REBT explanation of emotional distress is related to the effects of emotional appraisals. See Chapter 10, pages 359–360.

BRIDGES

Ellis (1979, Ellis & Ellis, 2011) says that most irrational beliefs come from three core ideas, each of which is unrealistic:

1. I must perform well and be approved of by significant others. If I don’t, then it is awful, I cannot stand it, and I am a rotten person.

2. You must treat me fairly. When you don’t, it is horrible, and I cannot bear it.

3. Conditions must be the way I want them to be. It is terrible when they are not, and I cannot stand living in such an awful world.

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Selective perception Perceiving only certain stimuli among a larger array of possibilities.

Overgeneralization Blowing a single event out of proportion by extending it to a large number of unrelated situations.

All-or-nothing thinking Classifying objects or events as absolutely right or wrong, good or bad, acceptable or unacceptable, and so forth.

Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) An approach that states that irrational beliefs cause many emotional problems and that such beliefs must be changed or abandoned.

It’s easy to see that such beliefs can lead to much grief and needless suffering in a less than perfect world. Rational-emotive behavior therapists are very directive in their attempts to change a client’s irrational beliefs and “self-talk.” The therapist may directly attack clients’ logic, challenge their thinking, confront them with evidence contrary to their beliefs, and even assign “homework.” Here, for instance, are some examples of statements that dispute irrational beliefs (adapted from Dryden, 2011; Ellis & Ellis, 2011; Kottler & Shepard, 2011):

• “Where is the evidence that you are a loser just because you didn’t do well this one time?”

• “Who said the world should be fair? That’s your rule.” • “What are you telling yourself to make yourself feel so upset?” • “Is it really terrible that things aren’t working out as you would like? Or is

it just inconvenient?”

Many of us would probably do well to give up our irrational beliefs. Improved self-acceptance and a better tolerance of daily annoyances are the benefits of doing so (see “Overcoming the Gambler’s Fallacy”).

The value of cognitive approaches is further illustrated by three techniques (covert sensitization, thought stopping, and covert rein- forcement) described in this chapter’s Psychology in Action section. A little later you can see what you think of them.

Ten Irrational Beliefs—Which Do You Hold?Discovering Psychology

Rational-emotive behavior therapists have identified numerous beliefs that com- monly lead to emotional upsets and con- flicts. See if you recognize any of the following irrational beliefs:

1. I must be loved and approved by almost every significant person in my life or it’s awful and I’m worthless.

Example: “One of my classmates doesn’t seem to like me. I must be a big loser.”

2. I should be completely competent and achieving in all ways to be a worthwhile person.

Example: “I don’t understand my physics class. I guess I really am just stupid.”

3. It’s terribly upsetting when things don’t go my way.

Example: “I should have gotten a B in that class. The teacher is a total creep.”

4. It’s not my fault I’m unhappy; I can’t control my emotional reactions.

Example: “You make me feel awful. I would be happy if it weren’t for you.”

5. I should never forget it if something un- pleasant happens.

Example: “I’ll never forget the time my boss insulted me. I think about it every day at work.”

6. It is easier to avoid difficulties and re- sponsibilities than to face them.

Example: “I don’t know why my girl- friend is angry. Maybe it will just pass if I ignore it.”

7. A lot of people I have to deal with are bad. I should severely punish them for it.

Example: “The students renting next door are such a pain. I’m going to play my stereo even louder the next time they complain.”

8. I should depend on others who are stronger than me.

Example: “I couldn’t survive if she left me.”

9. Because something once strongly af- fected me, it will do so forever.

Example: “My girlfriend dumped me during my junior year in college. I can never trust a woman again.”

10. There is always a perfectly obvious solu- tion to human problems, and it is im- moral if this solution is not put into practice.

Example: “I’m so depressed about poli- tics in this country. It all seems hopeless.”*

If any of the listed beliefs sound familiar, you may be creating unnecessary emotional distress for yourself by holding on to unreal- istic expectations.

*Adapted from Dryden, 2011; Ellis & Ellis, 2011; Teyber & McClure, 2011).

Knowledge Builder Humanistic and Cognitive Therapies

RECITE Match: 1. _____ Client-centered therapy A. Changing thought patterns 2. _____ Gestalt therapy B. Unconditional positive regard 3. _____ Existential therapy C. Gaps in awareness 4. _____ REBT D. Choice and becoming 5. The Gestalt therapist tries to reflect a client’s thoughts and feelings.

T or F? 6. Confrontation and encounter are concepts of existential therapy.

T or F? 7. According to Beck, selective perception, overgeneralization, and

_________________________ thinking are cognitive habits that underlie depression.

Continued

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Therapies Based on Classical Conditioning—Healing by Learning

Gateway Question 15.6: What is behavior therapy? Jay repeatedly and vividly imagined himself going into a store to steal something. He then pictured himself being caught and turned over to the police, who handcuffed him and hauled him off to jail. Once there, he imagined calling his wife to tell her he had been arrested for shoplifting. He became very distressed as he faced her anger and his son’s disappointment (Kohn & Antonuccio, 2002).

Why would anyone imagine such a thing? Jay’s behavior is not as strange as it may seem. His goal was self-control: Jay is a kleptoma- niac (a compulsive thief ). The method he chose (called covert sensitization) is a form of behavior therapy (Prochaska & Norcross, 2010).

In general, how does behavior therapy work? A breakthrough occurred when psychologists realized they could use learning principles to solve human problems. Behavior therapy is an action therapy that uses learning principles to make constructive changes in behavior. Behavior therapists believe that deep insight into one’s problems is often unnecessary for improvement. Instead, they try to directly alter troublesome actions and thoughts. Jay

Overcoming the Gambler’s FallacyThe Clinical File

Seventeen-year-old Jonathan just lost his shirt again. This time, he did it playing on- line Blackjack. Jonathan started out making $5 bets and then doubled his bet over and over. Surely, he thought, his luck would eventually change. However, he ran out of money after just eight straight hands, having lost more than $1000. Last week, he lost a lot of money playing Texas Hold ‘Em. Now Jonathan is in tears—he has lost most of his summer earnings, and he is worried about having to drop out of school and tell his par- ents about his losses. Jonathan has had to admit that he is part of the growing ranks of underage gambling addicts (LaBrie & Shaf- fer, 2007; Wilber & Potenza, 2006).

Like many problem gamblers, Jonathan suffers from several cognitive distortions re- lated to gambling. Here are some of his mis- taken beliefs (adapted from adapted from Toneatto, 2002; Wickwire, Whelan, & Meyers, 2010):

Magnified gambling skill: Your self- confidence is exaggerated, despite the fact that you lose persistently.

Attribution errors: You ascribe your wins to skill but blame losses on bad luck.

Gambler’s fallacy: You believe that a string of losses soon must be followed by wins.

Selective memory: You remember your wins but forget your losses.

Overinterpretation of cues: You put too much faith in irrelevant cues such as bodily sensations or a feeling that your next bet will be a winner.

Luck as a trait: You believe that you are a “lucky” person in general.

Probability biases: You have incorrect beliefs about randomness and chance events.

Do you have any of these mistaken beliefs? Taken together, Jonathan’s cognitive distor- tions created an illusion of control. That is, he believed that if he worked hard enough, he could figure out how to win. Fortunately, a cog- nitive therapist helped Jonathan cognitively restructure his beliefs. He now no longer be- lieves he can control chance events. Jonathan still gambles a bit, but he does so only recre- ationally, keeping his losses within his budget and enjoying himself in the process.

Gambling addiction is a growing problem among young people (LaBrie & Shaffer, 2007).

8. The B in the A-B-C of REBT stands for a. behavior b. belief c. being d. Beck

REFLECT Think Critically

9. How might using the term patient affect the relationship between an individual and a therapist?

1 0. In Aaron Beck’s terms, a belief such as “I must perform well or I am a rotten person” involves two thinking errors. What are they?

Self-Reflect

You are going to play the role of a therapist for a classroom demonstration. How would you act if you were a client-centered therapist? An existential therapist? A Gestalt therapist?

What would an existential therapist say about the choices you have made so far in your life? Should you be choosing more “courageously”?

We all occasionally engage in negative thinking. Can you remember a time recently when you engaged in selective perception? Overgeneralization? All-or-nothing thinking?

Answers: 1. B 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. F 6. T 7. all-or-nothing 8. b 9. The terms doctor and patient imply a large gap in status and authority between the individual and his or her therapist. Client-centered therapy attempts to narrow this gap by making the person the final authority concerning solutions to his or her problems. Also, the word patient implies that a person is “sick” and needs to be “cured.” Many regard this as an inappropriate way to think about human problems. 10. Overgeneralization and all-or-nothing thinking.

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Behavior therapy Any therapy designed to actively change behavior. Behavior modification The application of learning principles to change

human behavior, especially maladaptive behavior. Aversion therapy Suppressing an undesirable response by associating it

with aversive (painful or uncomfortable) stimuli.

didn’t need to probe into his past or his emotions and conflicts; he simply wanted to break his shoplifting habit. This and the next section describe some innovative—and very successful—behav- ioral therapies.

Behavior therapists assume that people have learned to be the way they are. If they have learned responses that cause problems, then they can change them by relearning more appropriate behav- iors. Broadly speaking, behavior modification refers to any use of classical or operant conditioning to directly alter human behavior (Miltenberger, 2011; Spiegler & Guevremont, 2010). (Some therapists prefer to call this approach applied behavior analysis.) Behavioral approaches include aversion therapy, desen- sitization, token economies, and other techniques (Forsyth & Savsevitz, 2002).

How does classical conditioning work? I’m not sure I remember. Perhaps a brief review would be helpful. Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which simple responses (especially reflexes) are associated with new stimuli. In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is followed by an unconditioned stimulus (US) that consis- tently produces an unlearned reaction, called the unconditioned response (UR). Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus begins to produce this response directly. The response is then called a condi- tioned response (CR), and the stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS). Thus, for a child the sight of a hypodermic needle (CS) is followed by an injection (US), which causes anxiety or fear (UR). Eventually, the sight of a hypodermic (the conditioned stimulus) may produce anxiety or fear (a conditioned response) before the child gets an injection.

For a more thorough review of classical conditioning, return to Chapter 6, pages 207–212.

BRIDGES

What does classical conditioning have to do with behavior modi- fication? Classical conditioning can be used to associate discom- fort with a bad habit, as Jay did to deal with his kleptomania. More powerful versions of this approach are called aversion therapy.

Aversion Therapy Imagine that you are eating an apple. Suddenly, you discover that you just bit a large green worm in half. You vomit. Months later, you cannot eat an apple again without feeling ill. It’s apparent that you have developed a conditioned aversion to apples. (A condi- tioned aversion is a learned dislike or negative emotional response to some stimulus.)

How are conditioned aversions used in therapy? In aversion therapy, an individual learns to associate a strong aversion to an undesirable habit such as smoking, drinking, or gambling. Aver- sion therapy has been used to cure hiccups, sneezing, stuttering, vomiting, nail-biting, bed-wetting, compulsive hair-pulling, alco- holism, and the smoking of tobacco, marijuana, or crack cocaine. Actually, aversive conditioning happens every day. For example, not many physicians who treat lung cancer patients are smokers, nor do many emergency room doctors drive without using their seat belts (Eifert & Lejuez, 2000).

Puffing Up an Aversion The fact that nicotine is toxic makes it easy to create an aversion that helps people give up smoking. Behavior therapists have found that electric shock, nauseating drugs, and similar aversive stimuli are not required to make smokers uncomfortable. All that is needed is for the smoker to smoke—rapidly, for a long time, at a forced pace. During rapid smoking, clients are told to smoke con- tinuously, taking a puff every 6 to 8 seconds. Rapid smoking con- tinues until the smoker is miserable and can stand it no more. By then, most people are thinking, “I never want to see another ciga- rette for the rest of my life.”

Rapid smoking has long been known as an effective behavior therapy for smoking (McRobbie & Hajek, 2007). Nevertheless, anyone tempted to try rapid smoking should realize that it is very unpleasant. Without the help of a therapist, most people quit too soon for the procedure to succeed. In addition, rapid smoking can be dangerous. It should be done only with professional supervi- sion. (An alternative method that is more practical is described in the Psychology in Action section of this chapter.)

Aversive Therapy for Drinking Another excellent example of aversion therapy was pioneered by Roger Vogler and his associates (1977). Vogler worked with alco- holics who were unable to stop drinking and for whom aversion therapy was a last chance. While drinking an alcoholic beverage, clients receive a painful (although not injurious) electric shock to the hand. Most of the time, these shocks occur as the client is beginning to take a drink of alcohol.

These response-contingent shocks (shocks that are linked to a response) obviously take the pleasure out of drinking. Shocks also

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cause the alcohol abuser to develop a conditioned aversion to drinking. Normally, the misery caused by alcohol abuse comes long after the act of drinking—too late to have much effect. But if alco- hol can be linked with immediate discomfort, then drinking will begin to make the individual very uncomfortable.

Is it really acceptable to treat clients this way? People are often disturbed (shocked?) by such methods. However, clients usually volunteer for aversion therapy because it helps them overcome a destructive habit. Indeed, commercial aversion programs for over- eating, smoking, and alcohol abuse have attracted many willing customers. More important, aversion therapy can be justified by its long-term benefits. As behaviorist Donald Baer put it, “A small number of brief, painful experiences are a reasonable exchange for the interminable pain of a lifelong maladjustment.”

Desensitization How is behavior therapy used to treat phobias, fears, and anxieties? Suppose you want to help Curtis overcome fear of the high diving board. How might you proceed? Directly forcing Curtis off the high board could be a psychological disaster. A better approach would be to begin by teaching him to dive off the edge of the pool. Then he could be taught to dive off the low board, followed by a platform 6 feet above the water and then an 8-foot platform. As a last step, Curtis could try the high board.

Who’s Afraid of a Hierarchy? This rank-ordered series of steps (called a hierarchy) allows Curtis to undergo adaptation. Gradually, he adapts to the high dive and overcomes his fear. When Curtis has conquered his fear, we can say that desensitization (dee-SEN-sih-tih-ZAY-shun) has occurred (Spiegler & Guevremont, 2010).

Desensitization is also based on reciprocal inhibition (using one emotional state to block another) (Heriot & Pritchard, 2004).

For instance, it is impossible to be anxious and relaxed at the same time. If we can get Curtis onto the high board in a relaxed state, his anxiety and fear will be inhibited. Repeated visits to the high board should cause fear to disappear in this situation. Again, we would say that Curtis has been desensitized. Typically, systematic desen- sitization (a guided reduction in fear, anxiety, or aversion) is attained by gradually approaching a feared stimulus while main- taining relaxation.

What is desensitization used for? Desensitization is used primar- ily to help people unlearn phobias (intense, unrealistic fears) or strong anxieties. For example, each of these people might be a can- didate for desensitization: a teacher with stage fright; a student with test anxiety; a salesperson who fears people; or a newlywed with an aversion to sexual intimacy.

Feeling a Little Tense? Relax!Discovering Psychology

The key to desensitization is relaxation. To inhibit fear, you must learn to relax. One way to voluntarily relax is by using the tension-release method. To achieve deep muscle relaxation, try the following exercise:

Tense the muscles in your right arm until they tremble. Hold them tight as you slowly count to ten and then let go. Allow your hand and arm to go limp and to relax completely. Repeat the procedure. Releasing tension two or three times will allow you to feel whether your arm

muscles have relaxed. Repeat the tension– release procedure with your left arm. Compare it with your right arm. Repeat until the left arm is equally relaxed. Apply the tension–release technique to your right leg; to your left leg; to your abdomen; to your chest and shoulders. Clench and release your chin, neck, and throat. Wrinkle and release your forehead and scalp. Tighten and release your mouth and face mus- cles. As a last step, curl your toes and tense your feet. Then release.

If you carried out these instructions, you should be noticeably more relaxed than you were before you began. Practice the tension- release method until you can achieve com- plete relaxation quickly (5 to 10 minutes). After you have practiced relaxation once a day for a week or two, you will begin to be able to tell when your body (or a group of muscles) is tense. Also, you will begin to be able to relax on command. This is a valuable skill that you can apply in any situation that makes you feel tense or anxious.

Programs for treating fears of flying combine relaxation, systematic desensitiza- tion, group support, and lots of direct and indirect exposure to airliners. Many such programs conclude with a brief flight, so that participants can “test their wings.”

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Hierarchy A rank-ordered series of higher and lower amounts, levels, degrees, or steps.

Reciprocal inhibition The presence of one emotional state can inhibit the occurrence of another, such as joy preventing fear or anxiety inhibiting pleasure.

Systematic desensitization A reduction in fear, anxiety, or aversion brought about by planned exposure to aversive stimuli.

Tension-release method A procedure for systematically achieving deep relaxation of the body.

Vicarious desensitization A reduction in fear or anxiety that takes place vicariously (“secondhand”) when a client watches models perform the feared behavior.

Virtual reality exposure Use of computer-generated images to present fear stimuli. The virtual environment responds to a viewer’s head movements and other inputs.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) A technique for reducing fear or anxiety; based on holding upsetting thoughts in mind while rapidly moving the eyes from side to side.

Performing Desensitization How is desensitization done? First, the client and the therapist construct a hierarchy. This is a list of fear- provoking situations, arranged from least disturbing to most frightening. Second, the client is taught exer- cises that produce deep relaxation (see “Feeling a Little Tense? Relax!”). Third, once the client is relaxed, she or he tries to perform the least disturbing item on the list. For a fear of heights (acrophobia), this might be: “(1) Stand on a chair.” The first item is repeated until no anxiety is felt. Any change from complete relaxation is a signal that clients must relax again before continuing. Slowly, clients move up the hierar- chy: “(2) Climb to the top of a small stepladder”; “(3) Look down a flight of stairs”; and so on, until the last item is performed without fear: “(20) Fly in an airplane.”

For many phobias, desensitization works best when people are directly exposed to the stimuli and situa- tions they fear (Bourne, 2010; Miltenberger, 2011). For something like a simple spider phobia, this expo- sure can even be done in groups. Also, for some fears (such as fear of riding an elevator, or fear of spiders) desensitiza- tion may be completed in a single session (Müller et al., 2011; Sturges & Sturges, 1998).

Vicarious Desensitization What if it’s not practical to directly act out the steps of a hierarchy? For a fear of heights, the steps of the hierarchy might be acted out. However, if this is impractical, as it might be in the case of a fear of flying, the problem can be handled by having clients observe mod- els who are performing the feared behavior (Eifert & Lejuez, 2000; Bourne, 2010; • Figure 15.2). A model is a person (either live or filmed) who serves as an example for observational learning. If such vicarious desensitization (secondhand learning) can’t be used, there is yet another option. Fortunately, desensitization works almost as well when a person vividly imagines each step in the hierarchy (Yahnke, Sheikh, & Beckman, 2003). If the steps can be visualized without anxiety, fear in the actual situation is reduced. Because imagining feared stimuli can be done at a therapist’s office, it is the most common way of doing desensitization.

Virtual Reality Exposure Desensitization is an exposure therapy. Similar to other such thera- pies, it involves exposing people to feared stimuli until their fears extinguish. In an important recent development, psychologists are now also using virtual reality to treat phobias. Virtual reality is a computer-generated, three-dimensional “world” that viewers enter by wearing a head-mounted video display. Virtual reality expo- sure presents computerized fear stimuli to clients in a realistic, yet carefully controlled fashion (Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2005; Riva, 2009). It has already been used to treat fears of flying, driv- ing, and public speaking as well as acrophobia (fear of heights),

claustrophobia, and spider phobias (Arbona et al., 2004; Giuseppe, 2005; Lee et al., 2002; Meyerbröker & Emmelkamp, 2010; Müller et al., 2011; see • Figure 15.3.). Virtual reality exposure has also been used to create immersive distracting environments for help patients reduce the experience of pain (Malloy & Milling, 2010).

Desensitization has been one of the most successful behavior therapies. A relatively new technique may provide yet another way to lower fears, anxieties, and psychological pain.

Eye Movement Desensitization Traumatic events produce painful memories. Disturbing flash- backs often haunt victims of accidents, disasters, molestations, muggings, rapes, or emotional abuse. To help ease traumatic mem- ories and post-traumatic stress, Dr. Francine Shapiro developed eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR).

• Figure 15.2 Treatment of a snake phobia by vicarious desensitization. These classic photo- graphs show models interacting with snakes. To overcome their own fears, phobic subjects observed the models (Bandura, Blanchard, & Ritter, 1969).

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In a typical EMDR session, the client is asked to visualize the images that most upset her or him. At the same time, a pencil (or other object) is moved rapidly from side to side in front of the person’s eyes. Watching the moving object causes the person’s eyes to dart swiftly back and forth. After about 30 seconds, clients describe any memories, feelings, and thoughts that emerged and discuss them with the therapist. These steps are repeated until troubling thoughts and emotions no longer surface (Shapiro, 2001; Shapiro & Forrest, 2004).

A number of studies suggest that EMDR lowers anxieties and takes the pain out of traumatic memories (Seidler & Wagner, 2006). However, EMDR is highly controversial (Albright & Thyer, 2010). Some studies, for example, have found that eye movements

add nothing to the treatment. The apparent success of EMDR may simply be based on gradual exposure to upsetting stimuli, as in other forms of desensitization (Davidson & Parker, 2001). On the other hand, some researchers continue to find that EMDR is superior to traditional therapies (Greenwald, 2006; Solomon, Solomon, & Heide, 2009).

Is EMDR a breakthrough? Given the frequency of traumas in modern society, it shouldn’t be long before we find out.

Operant Therapies—All the World Is a Skinner Box?

Gateway Question 15.7: What role do operant principles play in behavior therapy? Aversion therapy and desensitization are based on classical condition- ing. Where does operant conditioning fit in? As you may recall, oper- ant conditioning refers to learning based on the consequences of making a response. The operant principles most often used by behavior therapists to deal with human behavior are:

1. Positive reinforcement. Responses that are followed by re- inforcement tend to occur more frequently. If children whine and get attention, they will whine more frequently. If you get A’s in your psychology class, you may become a psychology major.

2. Nonreinforcement and Extinction. A response that is not followed by reinforcement will occur less frequently. If a response is not followed by reward after it has been repeated many times, it will extinguish entirely. After winning three times, you pull the handle on a slot machine 30 times more without a payoff. What do you do? You go away. So does the response of handle pulling (for that particular machine, at any rate).

3. Punishment. If a response is followed by discomfort or an undesirable effect, the response will be suppressed (but not necessarily extinguished).

4. Shaping. Shaping means reinforcing actions that are closer and closer approximations to a desired response. For example, to reward an intellectually disabled child for saying “ball,” you might begin by reinforcing the child for saying anything that starts with a b sound.

5. Stimulus control. Responses tend to come under the control of the situation in which they occur. If you set your clock 10 minutes fast, it may be easier to leave the house on time in the morning. Your departure is under the stimulus control of the clock, even though you know it is fast.

6. Time out. A time-out procedure usually involves removing the individual from a situation in which reinforcement occurs. Time out is a variation of response cost: It pre- vents reward from following an undesirable response. For example, children who fight with each other can be sent to separate rooms and allowed out only when they are able to behave more calmly.

• Figure 15.3 (top) Dr. Larry Hodges (in the head-mounted display) and Dr. Page Anderson show how a virtual reality system is used to expose people to feared stimuli. (bottom) A computer image from a virtual Iraq or Afghanistan. Veterans suf- fering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can re-experience their traumas. For example, someone whose Humvee was destroyed by an improvised explosive device can relive that moment complete with sights, sounds, vibrations, and even smells. Successive exposures result in a reduction of PTSD symptoms (Gerardi et al., 2008).

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Token economy A therapeutic program in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged for goods, services, activities, and privileges.

For a more thorough review of operant learning, return to Chapter 6, pages 212–229.

BRIDGES

As simple as these principles may seem, they have been used very effectively to overcome difficulties in work, home, school, and industrial settings. Let’s see how.

Nonreinforcement and Extinction An extremely overweight mental patient had a persistent and dis- turbing habit: She stole food from other patients. No one could persuade her to stop stealing or to diet. For the sake of her health, a behavior therapist assigned her a special table in the ward dining room. If she approached any other table, she was immediately removed from the dining room. Any attempt to steal from others caused the patient to miss her own meal (Ayllon, 1963). Because her attempts to steal food went unrewarded, they rapidly disappeared.

What operant principles did the therapist in this example use? The therapist used nonreward to produce extinction. The most frequently occurring human behaviors lead to some form of reward. An unde- sirable response can be eliminated by identifying and removing the rewards that maintain it. But people don’t always do things for food, money, or other obvious rewards. Most of the rewards maintaining human behavior are subtler. Attention, approval, and concern are common yet powerful reinforcers for humans (• Figure 15.4).

Nonreward and extinction can eliminate many problem behav- iors, especially in schools, hospitals, and institutions. Often, diffi-

culties center on a limited number of particularly disturbing responses. Time out is a good way to remove such responses, usu- ally by refusing to pay attention to a person who is misbehaving. For example, 14-year-old Terrel periodically appeared in the nude in the activity room of a training center for disturbed adolescents. This behavior always generated a great deal of attention from staff and other patients. As an experiment, the next time he appeared nude, counselors and other staff members greeted him normally and then ignored him. Attention from other patients rapidly sub- sided. Sheepishly, he returned to his room and dressed.

Reinforcement and Token Economies A distressing problem therapists sometimes face is how to break through to severely disturbed patients who won’t talk. Conven- tional psychotherapy offers little hope of improvement for such patients.

What can be done for them? One widely used approach is based on tokens (symbolic rewards that can be exchanged for real rewards). Tokens may be printed slips of paper, check marks, points, or gold stars. Whatever form they take, tokens serve as rewards because they may be exchanged for candy, food, cigarettes, recreation, or privileges, such as private time with a therapist, out- ings, or watching television. Tokens are used in mental hospitals, halfway houses, schools for the intellectually disabled, programs for delinquents, and ordinary classrooms. They usually produce improvements in behavior (Dickerson, Tenhula, & Green-Paden, 2005; Matson & Boisjoli, 2009).

Tokens provide an effective way to change behavior because they are secondary reinforcers. See Chapter 6, pages 218–220.

BRIDGES

By using tokens, a therapist can immediately reward positive responses. For maximum impact, therapists select specific target behaviors (actions or other behav- iors the therapist seeks to modify). Target behaviors are then reinforced with tokens. For example, a mute mental patient might first be given a token each time he or she says a word. Next, tokens may be given for speaking a complete sentence. Later, the patient could gradually be required to speak more often, then to answer questions, and eventually to carry on a short conversation in order to receive tokens. In this way, deeply withdrawn patients have been returned to the world of normal communication.

The full-scale use of tokens in an institutional set- ting produces a token economy. In a token economy,

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• Figure 15.4 This graph shows extinction of self-destructive behavior in two autistic boys. Before extinction began, the boys received attention and concern from adults for injuring them- selves. During extinction, the adults were taught to ignore the boys’ self-damaging behavior. As you can see, the number of times that the boys tried to injure themselves declined rapidly. (Adapted from Lovaas & Simmons, 1969.)

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patients are rewarded with tokens for a wide range of socially desirable or productive activities (Spiegler & Guevremont, 2010). They must pay tokens for privileges and when they engage in problem behaviors (• Figure 15.5). For example, tokens are given to patients who dress themselves, take required medication, arrive for meals on time, and so on. Constructive activities, such as gardening, cooking, or cleaning, may also earn tokens. Patients must exchange tokens for meals and private rooms, movies, passes, off-ward activities, and other privi- leges. They are charged tokens for disrobing in public, talking to themselves, fighting, crying, and similar target behaviors (Morisse et al., 1996; Spiegler & Guevremont, 2010).

Token economies can radically change a patient’s overall adjustment and morale. Patients are given an incentive to change, and they are held responsible for their actions. The use of tokens may seem manip- ulative, but it actually empowers patients. Many “hopelessly” intellectually disabled, mentally ill, and delinquent people have been returned to productive lives by means of token economies (Field et al., 2004).

By the time they are ready to leave, patients may be earning tokens on a weekly basis for maintaining sane, responsible, and productive behavior (Miltenberger, 2011). Typically, the most effective token economies are those that gradually switch from tokens to social rewards such as praise, recognition, and approval. Such rewards are what patients will receive when they return to family, friends, and community.

OXNARD DAY TREATMENT CENTER CREDIT INCENTIVE SYSTEM

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• Figure 15.5 Shown here is a token used in one token economy system. In this instance, the token is a card that records the number of credits earned by a patient. Also pictured is a list of credit values for various activities. Tokens may be exchanged for items or for privileges listed on the board. (After photographs by Robert P. Liberman.)

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Knowledge Builder Behavior Therapies

RECITE 1. What two types of conditioning are used in behavior modification?

______________________ and ______________________ 2. Shock, pain, and discomfort play what role in conditioning an

aversion? a. conditioned stimulus b. unconditioned response

c. unconditioned stimulus d. conditioned response 3. If shock is used to control drinking, it must be ___________________

contingent. 4. When desensitization is carried out through the use of live or filmed

models, it is called a. cognitive therapy b. flooding c. covert desensitization

d. vicarious desensitization 5. The three basic steps in systematic desensitization are: constructing

a hierarchy, flooding the person with anxiety, and imagining relaxation. T or F?

6. In EMDR therapy, computer-generated virtual reality images are used to expose clients to fear-provoking stimuli. T or F?

7. Behavior modification programs aimed at extinction of an undesirable behavior typically make use of what operant principles? a. punishment and stimulus control b. punishment and shaping

c. nonreinforcement and time out d. stimulus control and time out

8. Attention can be a powerful ______________________ for humans. 9. Tokens basically allow the operant shaping of desired responses or

“target behaviors.” T or F?

REFLECT Think Critically

1 0. Alcoholics who take a drug called Antabuse become ill after drinking alcohol. Why, then, don’t they develop an aversion to drinking?

1 1. A natural form of desensitization often takes place in hospitals. Can you guess what it is?

Self-Reflect

Can you describe three problems for which you think behavior therapy would be an appropriate treatment?

A friend of yours has a dog that goes berserk during thunderstorms. You own a CD of a thunderstorm. How could you use the CD to desensitize the dog? (Hint: The CD player has a volume control.)

Have you ever become naturally desensitized to a stimulus or situation that at first made you anxious (for instance, heights, public speaking, or driving on freeways)? How would you explain your reduced fear?

See if you can give a personal example of how the following principles have affected your behavior: positive reinforcement, extinction, punishment, shaping, stimulus control, and time out.

Answers: 1. classical (or respondent), operant 2. c 3. response 4. d 5. F 6. F 7. C 8. reinforcer 9. T 10. Committed alcoholics may actually “drink through it” and learn to tolerate the nauseating effects. 11. Doctors and nurses learn to relax and remain calm at the sight of blood and other bodily fluids because of their frequent exposure to them.

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Somatic therapy Any bodily therapy, such as drug therapy, electroconvulsive therapy, or psychosurgery.

Pharmacotherapy The use of drugs to treat psychopathology. Anxiolytics Drugs (such as Valium) that produce relaxation or reduce

anxiety. Antidepressants Mood-elevating drugs. Antipsychotics (major tranquilizers) Drugs that, in addition to having

tranquilizing effects, also tend to reduce hallucinations and delusional thinking.

Medical Therapies— Psychiatric Care

Gateway Question 15.8: How do psychiatrists treat psychological disorders? Psychotherapy may be applied to anything from a brief crisis to a full-scale psychosis. However, most psychotherapists do not treat patients with major depressive disorders, schizophrenia, or other severe conditions. Major mental disorders are more often treated medically, although combinations of medication and psychother- apy are also often helpful (Beck, et al., 2009).

Three main types of somatic (bodily) therapy are pharmaco- therapy, electrical stimulation therapy, and psychosurgery. Somatic

therapy is often done in the context of psychiatric hospitalization. All the somatic approaches have a strong medical slant and are typically administered by psychiatrists, who are trained as medical doctors.

Drug Therapies The atmosphere in psychiatric wards and mental hospitals changed radically in the mid-1950s with the widespread adoption of pharmacotherapy (FAR-meh-koe-THER-eh-pea), the use of drugs to treat psychopathology. Drugs may relieve the anxiety attacks and other discomforts of milder psychological disorders. More often, however, they are used to combat schizophrenia and major mood disorders ( Julien, 2008).

What sort of drugs are used in pharmacotherapy? Three major types of drugs are used. All achieve their effects by influencing the activity of different brain neurotransmitters (Freberg, 2010). Anxiolytics (ANG-zee-eh LIT-iks), such as Valium, produce relaxation or reduce anxiety. Antidepressants, such as Prozac, are mood-elevating drugs that combat depression. Antipsychot- ics (also called major tranquilizers), such as Risperdal, have tranquilizing effects and reduce hallucinations and delusions. See ■ Table 15.2 for examples of each class of drugs.

Are drugs a valid approach to treatment? Yes. Drugs have short- ened hospital stays, and they have greatly improved the chances that people will recover from major psychological disorders. Drug therapy has also made it possible for many people to return to the community, where they can be treated on an outpatient basis.

Limitations of Drug Therapy Regardless of their benefits, all drugs involve risks as well. For example, 15 percent of patients taking major tranquilizers for long periods develop a neurological disorder that causes rhythmic facial

Commonly Prescribed Psychiatric Drugs

Class Examples (Trade Names) Effects Main Mode of Action

Anxiolytics (minor tranquilizers)

Ativan, Halcion, Librium, Restoril, Valium, Xanax

Reduce anxiety, tension, fear Enhance effects of GABA

Antidepressants Anafranil, Elavil, Nardil, Norpramin, Parnate, Paxil, Prozac, Tofranil, Zoloft

Counteract depression Enhance effects of sero- tonin or dopamine

Antipsychotics (major tranquilizers)

Clozaril, Haldol, Mellaril, Navane, Risperdal, Thorazine

Reduce agitation, delusions, hallucinations, thought disorders

Reduce effects of dopamine

■ TABLE 15.2

Source: Adapted from Freberg, 2010; Julien, 2008; Kalat, 2009.

The work of artist Rodger Casier illustrates the value of psychiatric care. Despite having a form of schizophrenia, Casier produces artwork that has received public acclaim and has been featured in professional journals.

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and mouth movements (Chakos et al., 1996). Similarly, although the drug clozapine (Clozaril) can relieve the symptoms of schizo- phrenia, 2 out of 100 patients taking the drug suffer from a poten- tially fatal blood disease (Ginsberg, 2006).

Is the risk worth it? Many experts think it is, because chronic schizophrenia robs people of almost everything that makes life worth living. It’s possible, of course, that newer drugs will improve the risk/benefit ratio in the treatment of severe problems like schizophrenia. For example, the drug risperidone (Risperdal) appears to be as effective as Clozaril, without the same degree of lethal risk.

But even the best new drugs are not cure-alls. They help some people and relieve some problems, but not all. It is noteworthy that for serious mental disorders a combination of medication and psychotherapy almost always works better than drugs alone (Manber et al., 2008). Nevertheless, when schizophrenia and major mood disorders are concerned, drugs will undoubtedly remain the primary mode of treatment (Vasa, Carlino, & Pine, 2006; Walker et al., 2004).

Electrical Stimulation Therapy In contrast to drug therapies, electrical stimulation therapies achieve their effects by altering the electrical activity of the brain. Electroconvulsive therapy is the first, and most dramatic, of these therapies. Widely used since the 1940s, it remains controversial to this day (Hirshbein & Sarvananda, 2008).

Electroshock In electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), a 150-volt electrical current is passed through the brain for slightly less than a second. This rather drastic medical treatment for depression triggers a convul- sion and causes the patient to lose consciousness for a short time. Muscle relaxants and sedative drugs are given before ECT to soften its impact. Treatments are given in a series of sessions spread over several weeks or months.

How does shock help? Actually, it is the seizure activity that is believed to be helpful. Proponents of ECT claim that shock- induced seizures alter or “reset” the biochemical and hormonal balance in the brain and body, bringing an end to severe depression and suicidal behavior (Medda et al., 2009) as well as improving long-term quality of life (McCall et al., 2006). Others have charged that ECT works only by confusing patients so they can’t remember why they were depressed.

Not all professionals support the use of ECT. However, most experts seem to agree on the following: (1) At best, ECT produces only temporary improvement—it gets the patient out of a bad spot, but it must be combined with other treatments; (2) ECT can cause memory loss in some patients (Sienaert et al., 2010); (3) ECT should be used only after other treatments have failed; and (4) to lower the chance of a relapse, ECT should be followed by antide- pressant drugs (Sackeim et al., 2001). All told, ECT is considered by many to be a valid treatment for selected cases of depression— especially when it rapidly ends wildly self-destructive or suicidal behavior (Medda et al., 2009; Pagnin et al., 2004). It’s interesting to note that most ECT patients feel that the treatment helped them. Most, in fact, would have it done again (Bernstein et al., 1998; Smith et al., 2009).

Implanted Electrodes Unlike ECT, implanting electrodes requires surgery but allows for electrical stimulation of precisely targeted brain regions. In some studies, depressed patients who hadn’t benefited from drug therapy and ECT improved when a specific brain region was stimulated (Mayberg et al., 2005; Sartorius et al., 2010). Stimulating pleasure centers in the brains of another group of patients also relieved depression (Schlaepfer et al., 2008). Also, unlike ECT, implanted electrodes can be used to treat disorders other than depression, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (Haq et al., 2010).

Electrical stimulation of the brain is one of several methods used to investigate the brain’s inner workings. For more information, see Chapter 2, pages 60–63.

BRIDGES

Psychosurgery Psychosurgery (any surgical alteration of the brain) is the most extreme medical treatment. The oldest and most radical psycho- surgery is the lobotomy. In prefrontal lobotomy, the frontal lobes are surgically disconnected from other brain areas. This procedure was supposed to calm persons who didn’t respond to any other type of treatment.

When the lobotomy was first introduced in the 1940s, there were enthusiastic claims for its success. But later studies suggested that some patients were calmed, some showed no change, and some became mental “vegetables.” Lobotomies also produced a high rate of undesirable side effects, such as seizures, blunted emotions, major personality changes, and stupor. At about the same time that

In electroconvulsive therapy, electrodes are attached to the head and a brief electrical current is passed through the brain. ECT is used in the treat- ment of severe depression.

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Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) A treatment for severe depression, consisting of an electric shock passed directly through the brain, which induces a convulsion.

Psychosurgery Any surgical alteration of the brain designed to bring about desirable behavioral or emotional changes.

Mental hospitalization Placing a person in a protected, therapeutic environment staffed by mental health professionals.

Partial hospitalization An approach in which patients receive treatment at a hospital during the day, but return home at night.

Deinstitutionalization Reduced use of full-time commitment to mental institutions to treat mental disorders.

such problems became apparent, the first antipsychotic drugs became available. Soon after, the lobotomy was abandoned (Mashour, Walker, & Martuza, 2005).

To what extent is psychosurgery used now? Psychosurgery is still considered valid by many neurosurgeons. However, most now use deep lesioning, in which small target areas are destroyed in the brain’s interior. The appeal of deep lesioning is that it can have value as a remedy for some very specific disorders (Mashour, Walker, & Martuza, 2005). For instance, patients suffering from a severe type of obsessive-compulsive disorder may be helped by psychosurgery (Dougherty et al., 2002).

Deep lesioning is another method used to study the brain. See Chapter 2, pages 60–63.

BRIDGES

It is worth remembering that psychosurgery cannot be reversed. Whereas a drug can be given or taken away and electrical stimula- tion can be turned off, you can’t take back psychosurgery. Critics argue that psychosurgery should be banned altogether; others con- tinue to report success with brain surgery. Nevertheless, it may have value as a remedy for some very specific disorders (Mashour, Walker, & Martuza, 2005; Sachdev & Chen, 2009).

Hospitalization In 2008, about 3 million Americans received inpatient treat- ment for a mental health problem (National Institute of Mental Health, 2011a). Mental hospitalization involves placing a per- son in a protected setting where medical therapy is provided. Hospitalization, by itself, can be a form of treatment. Staying in a hospital takes patients out of situations that may be sustaining their problems. For example, people with drug addictions may find it nearly impossible to resist the temptations for drug abuse in their daily lives. Hospitalization can help them make a clean break from their self-destructive behavior patterns (André et al., 2003).

At their best, hospitals are sanctuaries that provide diagnosis, support, refuge, and therapy. This is frequently true of psychiat- ric units in general hospitals and private psychiatric hospitals. At worst, confinement to an institution can be a brutal experience that leaves people less prepared to face the world than when they arrived. This is more often the case in large state mental hospi- tals. In most instances, hospitals are best used as a last resort, after other forms of treatment within the community have been exhausted.

Another trend in treatment is partial hospitalization. In this approach, some patients spend their days in the hospital but go home at night. Others attend therapy sessions during the eve- ning. A major advantage of partial hospitalization is that patients can go home and practice what they’ve been learning. Overall, partial hospitalization can be just as effective as full hospitaliza- tion (Drymalski & Washburn, 2011; Kiser, Heston, & Paavola, 2006).

Deinstitutionalization In the last 50 years, the population in large mental hospitals has dropped by two thirds. This is largely a result of deinstitutional- ization, or reduced use of full-time commitment to mental institu- tions. Long-term “institutionalization” can lead to dependency, isolation, and continued emotional disturbance (Novella, 2010). Deinstitutionalization was meant to remedy this problem

How successful has deinstitutionalization been? In truth, its suc- cess has been limited (Talbott, 2004). Many states reduced mental hospital populations primarily as a way to save money. The upset- ting result is that many chronic patients have been discharged to hostile communities without adequate care. Many former patients have joined the ranks of the homeless. Others are repeatedly jailed for minor crimes. Sadly, patients who trade hospitalization for unemployment, homelessness, and social isolation all too often end up rehospitalized or in jail (Markowitz, 2011).

Large mental hospitals may no longer be warehouses for soci- ety’s unwanted, but many former patients are no better off in bleak nursing homes, single-room hotels, board-and-care homes, shelters, or jails. For every mentally ill American in a hospital, three are trapped in the criminal justice system (National Institute of Mental Health, 2010a). These figures suggest that jails are replacing mental hospitals as our society’s “solution” for mental illness (Markowitz, 2011). Yet, ironically, high-quality care is

Depending on the quality of the institution, hospitalization may be a refuge or a brutalizing experience. Many state “asylums” or mental hospitals are antiquated and in need of drastic improvement.

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available in almost every community. As much as anything, a simple lack of money prevents large numbers of people from get- ting the help they need (Torrey, 1996).

Halfway houses may be a better way to ease a patient’s return to the community (Soyez & Broekaert, 2003). Halfway houses are short-term group living facilities for people making the transition from an institution (mental hospital, prison, and so forth) to inde- pendent living. Typically, they offer supervision and support, without being as restricted and medically oriented as hospitals. They also keep people near their families. Most important, half- way houses can reduce a person’s chances of being readmitted to a hospital (Coursey, Ward-Alexander, & Katz, 1990; Soyez & Broekaert, 2003).

Community Mental Health Programs Community mental health centers, which offer a wide range of mental health services and psychiatric care and are a bright spot in the area of mental health care. Such centers try to help people avoid hospitalization and find answers to mental health problems (Burns, 2004; Teed et al., 2007). Typically, they do this by providing short- term treatment, counseling, outpatient care, emergency services, and suicide prevention.

Mental health centers are also concerned with prevention. Con- sultation, education, and crisis intervention (skilled management of a psychological emergency) are used to prevent problems before they become serious. Also, some centers attempt to raise the general level of mental health in a community by combating unemployment, delinquency, and drug abuse (Tausig, Michello, & Subedi, 2004).

Have community mental health centers succeeded in meeting their goals? In practice, they have concentrated much more on providing clinical services than they have on preventing problems. This appears to be primarily the result of wavering government support (translation: money). Overall, community mental health centers have succeeded in making psychological services more accessible

than ever before. Many of their programs rely on paraprofession- als (individuals who work in a near-professional capacity under the supervision of more highly trained staff ). Some paraprofessionals are ex-addicts, ex-alcoholics, or ex-patients who have “been there.” Many more are persons (paid or volunteer) who have skills in tutoring, crafts, or counseling or who are simply warm, under- standing, and skilled at communication. Often, paraprofessionals are more approachable than “doctors.” This encourages people to seek mental health services that they might otherwise be reluctant to use (Everly, 2002).

Therapies—Human to the Core Gateway Question 15.9: Are various psychotherapies effective, and what do they have in common? In this section, let’s ask whether the psychotherapies work and what, if anything, they have in common. We have put this section after the section on medical therapies to stress that human relations are at the core of healing. Whether or not a patient under medical care is receiving a somatic treatment, that treatment is adminis- tered in a human context. In that sense, it doesn’t matter if the healer is a psychotherapist, psychiatrist, social worker, hospital worker, or whatever. No matter what helping specialty you might be considering as a career, information you’ll encounter in this sec- tion might prove invaluable.

A well-run halfway house can be a humane and cost-effective way to ease former mental patients back into the community (Soyez & Broekaert, 2003).

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Knowledge Builder Medical Therapies

RECITE 1. Major tranquilizers are also known as

a. anxiolytics b. antipsychotics c. antidepressants d. prefrontal sedatives

2. ECT is a modern form of pharmacotherapy. T or F? 3. Currently, the frontal lobotomy is the most widely used form of

psychosurgery. T or F? 4. Deinstitutionalization is an advanced form of partial hospitalization.

T or F?

REFLECT Think Critically

5. Residents of Berkeley, California, once voted on a referendum to ban the use of ECT within city limits. Do you think that the use of certain psychiatric treatments should be controlled by law?

Self-Reflect

Keeping in mind that all therapies, and especially medical therapies, have side effects (see, e.g., Casselle, 2009), when is it appropriate to use a medical therapy to treat someone with a mental illness? Why not use psychotherapy instead?

Why might you choose to combine a medical therapy and psychotherapy? Can you frame your reasons in terms of the stress- vulnerability model introduced in Chapter 14?

Answers: 1. b 2. F 3. F 4. F 5. The question of who can prescribe drugs, perform surgery, and administer ECT is controlled by law. However, psychiatrists strongly object to residents, city councils, or government agencies making medical decisions.

Therapies 531

Halfway house A community-based facility for individuals making the transition from an institution (mental hospital, prison, and so forth) to independent living.

Community mental health center A facility offering a wide range of mental health services, such as prevention, counseling, consultation, and crisis intervention.

Crisis intervention Skilled management of a psychological emergency. Paraprofessional An individual who works in a near-professional capacity

under the supervision of a more highly trained person. Therapeutic alliance A caring relationship that unites a therapist and a

client in working to solve the client’s problems.

OK. So how effective is psychotherapy? Judging the outcome of therapy is tricky. In a national survey, 9 out of 10 people who have sought mental health care say their lives improved as a result of the treatment (Consumer Reports, 2010; Kotkin, Daviet, & Gurin, 1996). Unfortunately you can’t just take people’s word for it (see “How Do We Know Therapy Actually Works?”).

Psychologists are making steady progress in identifying “empiri- cally supported” (or “evidence-based”) therapies (Westen & Bradley, 2005). Rather than just relying on intuition, clinicians are seeking guidance from research experiments and guidelines developed through clinical practice (Carroll & Rounsaville, 2007; Miller & Binder, 2002). The end result is a better understanding of which therapies “work” best for specific types of problems. This trend is also helping to weed out fringe “therapies” that have little or no value.

Fortunately, there is direct evidence that therapy is beneficial. Hundreds of studies show a strong pattern of positive effects for psychotherapy, counseling, and other psychological treatments (Barlow, 2004; Lambert & Cattani-Thompson, 1996; Moras, 2002). Of course, results vary in individual cases. For some people, therapy is immensely helpful; for others, it is unsuccessful. Overall, it is effec- tive for more people than not. Speaking more subjectively, a real success, in which a person’s life is changed for the better, can be worth the frustration of several cases in which little progress is made.

Although it is common to think of therapy as a long, slow pro- cess, this is not normally the case (Shapiro et al., 2003). Research shows that about 50 percent of all clients feel better after between 13 and 18 weekly 1-hour therapy sessions (Howard et al., 1986). This means that the majority of clients improve after 6 months of therapy. Such rapid improvement is impressive in view of the fact that people often suffer for several years before seeking help. Unfortunately, because of high costs and limited insurance cover- age, the average client receives only 5 therapy sessions, after which only 20 percent of all patients feel better (Hansen, Lambert, & Forman, 2002).

Core Features of Psychotherapy What do psychotherapies have in common? We have sampled only a few of the many therapies in use today. For a summary of major differences among psychotherapies, see ■ Table 15.3. To add to your understanding, let’s briefly summarize what all techniques have in common.

Psychotherapies of various types share all or most of the follow- ing goals: restoring hope, courage, and optimism; gaining insight; resolving conflicts; improving one’s sense of self; changing unac- ceptable patterns of behavior; finding purpose; mending interper- sonal relations; and learning to approach problems rationally (Frank & Frank, 2004; Seligman, 1998). To accomplish these goals, psychotherapies offer the following:

1. Effective therapy provides a therapeutic alliance, a caring relationship that unites the client and therapist as they work together to solve the client’s problems. The strength of this alliance has a major impact on whether therapy succeeds (Kozart, 2002; Meier et al., 2006). The basis for this rela- tionship is emotional rapport, warmth, friendship, under- standing, acceptance, and empathy.

How Do We Know Therapy Actually Works?Critical Thinking

Why is it risky to believe people who say their therapy was effective? An old joke among doctors is that a cold lasts a week without treatment and seven days with it. Perhaps the same is true of therapy. Some- one who feels better after 6 months of ther- apy may have experienced a spontaneous remission—they just feel better because so much time has passed. Or perhaps the crisis that triggered the therapy is now nearly for- gotten. Or maybe some sort of therapy pla- cebo effect has occurred. Also, it’s possible that the person has received help from other people, such as family, friends, or clergy.

To find out if therapy works, we could randomly place clients in an experimental group that receives therapy and a control group that does not. When this is done, the control group may show some improve- ment, even without receiving therapy (Lambert & Ogles, 2002; Schuck, Keijsers, & Rinck, 2011). Thus, we can conclude that the therapy is effective only if people in the experimental group improve more than those in the control group.

But isn’t it unethical to withhold treatment from someone who really needs therapy? That’s right. One way to deal with this is to

use a waiting-list control group. In this case, people who are waiting to see a therapist are compared with those who receive therapy. Later, those on the waiting list will eventually also receive therapy.

Educational Psychology Questions

December 1, 2022/in Uncategorized /by SK

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. Considering the research findings described in the textbook, only one of the following is a true statement. Which one is true?

a. Repeating something over and over is usually the most effective way to learn it. b. Girls have a noticeable advantage over boys on verbal tasks. c. Students often study differently for different kinds of classroom assessments. d. For optimal performance, students should never feel the least bit anxious in the classroom.

2. Which one of the following is the best example of elaboration?

a. Logan copies a friend’s answers to last night’s homework assignment. b. Rosie repeats the spelling of each word several times the night before her spelling test. c. Melissa makes up stories to help her remember the various species she studies in biology. d. Sharon automatically knows how to study effectively for an upcoming history test.

3. Which one of the following is the best example of qualitative research?

a. comparing average achievement test scores for students at three different schools b. looking at school attendance records to identify potential school dropouts c. interviewing middle school students about cliques at their school d. finding out how long it takes 6-year-olds to assemble challenging picture puzzles

4. A study that tells us whether two variables are associated, but does not tell us if one variable causes or influences the other, is a(n):

a. experimental study with one or more control groups. b. experimental study without a control group. c. correlational study. d. descriptive study.

5. Experimental research requires which one of the following?

a. manipulating an aspect of the environment b. studying behavior in an actual classroom environment c. being able to predict two or more variables d. describing every variable in the study in considerable detail

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

6. A research study finds that students who weigh more do better in school. Which one of the following is an appropriate deduction from this information?

a. On average, students who eat more do better in school. b. Parents should feed their children as much as possible. c. There is a correlation between weight and classroom performance. d. The school cafeteria should decrease the fat content of the food it serves.

7. Which one of the following conclusions can be drawn only from an experimental study?

a. Boys are more likely to show aggressive behavior than girls. b. Drugs administered during childbirth affect a child’s early development. c. Children grow taller as they get older. d. Children’s muscular coordination improves as they grow older.

8. Mr. Jacobs wants to find out whether a new program for teaching physical education promotes students’ physical development. He gives his students a number of tests before they begin the program (pretests) and the same tests again after they have been in the program for eight months (post tests). He finds that the students’ post test scores are higher than their pretest scores and so concludes that the program is effective. What is definitely wrong with Mr. Jacobs’ conclusion?

a. Tests are not a good measure of physical development. b. There are other possible explanations for his results. c. Eight months is too short a time for such a program to have a long-term effect. d. The post tests should always be different from the pretests.

9. Most developmental theorists agree that:

a. physical development occurs in a predictable sequence, but cognitive development does not. b. developmental milestones appear in a consistent sequence for most children. c. development occurs at a smooth, constant rate throughout childhood and early adolescence; it begins to slow down in the high school years. d. cognitive development occurs in a predictable sequence, but physical development does not.

10. Which one of the following statements reflects what developmentalists mean by the term maturation?

a. developmental changes that are controlled largely by heredity b. changes that reflect increasingly appropriate social behavior c. changes related specifically to children’s emotional development d. changes related specifically to children’s physical development

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

11. A sensitive period in development can best be described as a(n):

a. approach to teaching or parenting that takes a child’s developmental level into account b. stage of development in which children display unpredictable (and often inappropriate) emotional responses c. period during children’s cognitive development in which they are highly distractible and are frequently off-task in the classroom d. age range during which environmental conditions are most likely to have an effect on a particular aspect of a child’s development

12. Which one of the following best describes our current knowledge about the brain and learning?

a. We know that the brain reaches adult levels of maturity at puberty, enabling young adolescents to think and learn as effectively as adults do. b. We know that “left-brained” individuals are, on average, more effective learners than “right-brained” individuals. c. We know that learning is often associated with the formation of new synapses or the strengthening of existing ones. d. We know that the cortexes of rapid learners are about 20% larger than the cortexes of slow learners.

13. As children grow older, many of their neurons begin to transmit messages more rapidly than they did in the early years of life thanks to:

a. myelination. b. increasing dominance of one brain hemisphere over the other. c. synaptogenesis. d. greater variety of neurotransmitters.

14. According to the textbook, which one of the following conclusions is most warranted from research on brain development?

a. Classroom experiences can affect students’ cognitive development throughout the elementary and secondary school years. b. It is essential that children begin studying basic mathematics and science before the age of seven. c. Children probably won’t master the skills essential to success in the adult world unless they begin developing those skills in the early elementary grades. d. The ability to think abstractly depends on the development of many synaptic connections during the first five years of life.

15. Which one of the following reflects class inclusion as Piaget described it?

a. realizing that things that are cars can also be vehicles b. identifying a shape as a square one day but as a triangle the next c. understanding that some behaviors that are perfectly acceptable at home are unacceptable at school d. getting cows and horses confused

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

16. Five-year-old Becky is playing with blocks, stacking them one on top of another until her towers eventually tumble and then stacking them again. Which one of the following best reflects Piaget’s view of how Becky is probably learning in this situation?

a. She is absorbing information about how the environment behaves (e.g., “objects fall”) without consciously thinking about it. b. Because she is probably still in the sensorimotor stage, she will remember what she learns about the blocks only while the blocks are still in front of her. c. She is actively thinking about and interpreting the results of her actions. d. Because she builds one tower after another, she is obviously reinforced by watching her towers tumble down.

17. Which one of the following most accurately describes the general concept of temperament?

a. an inherited predisposition to interact with one’s environment in certain ways b. the extent to which people like or dislike themselves c. the extent to which people use or don’t use their inherited intellectual potential d. the ways that individuals have learned to react to environmental stimuli as a result of their past experiences

18. Which one of the following fifth graders most clearly shows signs of healthy attachment to one or more parents or other primary caregivers?

a. Miranda seems withdrawn and frightened much of the time. b. Jeffrey is self-confident and often likes to work independently. c. Shelly has no friends and behaves aggressively toward the other girls in her class. d. Mike seems unusually preoccupied with an attractive young actress who stars in a popular television show.

19. Other things being equal, which student is most likely to have come from a home in which his or her parents exhibit an authoritative parenting style?

a. Frank is well-behaved and self-confident. b. Margaret is impulsive and disobedient. c. Patrick is selfish and unmotivated. d. Rhoda is anxious and unhappy.

20. If we extend research findings regarding effective parenting styles to the classroom, teachers would be well advised to:

a. reward good behavior and ignore inappropriate behavior. b. establish fair rules and high expectations, and provide loving support. c. insist on strict obedience, with immediate punishment for infractions. d. allow students to make their own decisions regarding how they should and should not

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

behave in the classroom. 21. Three of the following suggestions are apt to be helpful when teachers work with students and their parents. With the textbook’s discussion of parenting styles in mind, choose the strategy that is apt to be counterproductive.

a. Keep in mind that many parents from Asian cultures effectively combine elements of authoritative and authoritarian parenting. b. Acknowledge that authoritarian methods may be quite appropriate if families live in dangerous neighborhoods. c. Point out that parents who use authoritarian methods may be causing some of their children’s behavior problems. d. Keep in mind that many children do well in school despite less-than-optimal parenting styles at home.

22. Which one of the following should you definitely do if you suspect that one of your students is the victim of abuse or neglect at home?

a. Temporarily lower your expectations for the student’s academic performance until conditions at home seem to improve. b. Spend some one-on-one time with the student in an effort to get him or her to confide in you. c. Keep a close eye on the student over the next few weeks, looking for additional evidence that either supports or disconfirms your suspicions. d. Immediately report your suspicions to a school administrator or social services.

23. Three of the following teachers are socializing their students in the way that schools typically do. Which teacher is not socializing students in a typical fashion?

a. Ms. Allen insists that her students complete their independent seatwork before they go to recess. b. Ms. Bernetti has her students go to lunch by rows, letting the quietest rows go first. c. Ms. Dobson suggests that Sean bang his fist against the wall a few times whenever he gets frustrated. d. Ms. Castanza does not permit her students to talk back to her in a disrespectful fashion.

24. Three of the following tend to be fairly stable personality traits that children have to varying degrees. Which one would psychologists not characterize as a relatively stable personality trait?

a. how dependable children are in doing their work carefully and following through on assigned tasks b. how outgoing and friendly children are with their peers c. how quickly children solve math problems d. how often children have negative emotions such as anger or depression

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

25. Given what we know about the development of sense of self, three of the following are likely scenarios. Which scenario is not likely to occur?

a. Mike vacillates between thinking of himself as being very smart and as being extremely stupid. b. Aaron thinks that kids his age don’t like him, so he spends most of his spare time with his parents. c. Daniel knows he has many friends, but he wishes he were a better student. d. Rex knows he’s good in math and science but thinks of himself as a total klutz when it comes to sports.

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. Which one of the following is the most accurate statement about group differences among students?

a. When we have knowledge about typical group differences, we have a very good idea of how individual students are likely to perform in the classroom. b. We can make fairly accurate predictions about individual students when we know their gender, but not when we know their ethnic background. c. We can make fairly accurate predictions about individual students when we know their ethnic background, but not when we know their gender. d. The average for two groups may be different, but variability within each group keeps us from predicting individual performance.

2. Ten-year-old Svana has recently immigrated from Iceland to the United States. If we say that Svana is undergoing acculturation, we mean that she is:

a. refusing to speak any English at school. b. afraid to engage in social activities with her American peers. c. adopting some American behaviors and attitudes. d. maintaining all of the customs of her homeland.

3. Three of the following are likely to give you reasonable clues about a student’s cultural background and/or ethnic group membership. Which one is probably least dependable as an indicator of a student’s cultural background and ethnicity?

a. the color of a student’s skin b. what language is most often spoken at home c. the ethnicity of the student’s parents d. the cultural and religious activities in which a student regularly participates

4. Which one of the following is the best example of playing the dozens?

a. Jameel says to Ronald, “Your momma’s so fat her picture takes two frames.” Ronald responds, “Yeah? Well, your momma’s so fat it took three cows to make her a pair of shoes.” b. Helena tells her friend Mary that Wendy has been saying unkind things behind Mary’s back. She then goes to Wendy and tells her that Mary has been saying unkind things behind her back. c. Tariq devoutly follows Muslim practices (e.g., praying five times a day, fasting during Ramadan) on weekends and school holidays, but he tries to behave as his American classmates do on days when he attends school. d. When Alegria finishes her own classwork, she goes to the assistance of classmates who appear to be struggling with theirs.

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

5. A student says to you, “My momma, she be singin’ all da time.” This student appears to:

a. have a speech disorder that sometimes results from environmental toxins (e.g., lead-based paint). b. have had little exposure to language during a critical period in her language development. c. be using African American English, a dialect with some grammatical constructions different from those of Standard English. d. have grown up in Northern Ireland and so is using idioms typical of that country.

6. Three of the following alternatives describe reasons why, for cultural reasons, children may be relatively quiet in class. Which alternative is false?

a. In some cultures, children rarely hear spoken language until age 3 or 4. b. Children from some cultural backgrounds may have been taught that it’s rude to initiate a conversation with an adult. c. In some cultures, attentive listening is valued more highly than speaking. d. In some cultural groups, children are accustomed to learning more from quiet observation than from asking questions.

7. Psychologists believe that intelligence is culture-specific—that “intelligent” behavior in one culture is not necessarily intelligent behavior in a different culture. Three of the following are aspects of intelligence, regardless of the culture in which it is found. Which one is probably related to intelligence in some cultures but not in others?

a. learning how to perform a new task quickly b. doing well in academic classroom activities c. adapting readily to new situations d. applying prior knowledge to new situations

8. Robert is a 15-year-old boy who has attended U.S. schools since he began kindergarten at age 5. With this fact in mind, identify the task that is most likely to require Robert’s fluid intelligence rather than his crystallized intelligence.

a. applying algebra to a mathematical word problem b. solving a new kind of puzzle c. writing a persuasive essay on a current issue in the news d. finding Egypt on a map

9. Sam is a very talented dancer; he also shows considerable creativity in art class. He finds math and science classes very difficult, but he loves to read and tell stories to his many friends. Which view of intelligence is best reflected in Sam’s abilities?

a. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development b. Gardner’s multiple intelligences c. Sternberg’s triarchic theory d. distributed intelligence

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

10. Which one of the following statements best reflects Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence?

a. Intelligent behavior is a function of how well people draw on their prior experiences and cognitively process information in order to adapt to their particular environmental situation. b. Intelligent behavior evolves in three stages: preoperational thought, concrete thought and abstract thought. c. To be truly intelligent, one must show competence in critical thinking and appropriate classroom behavior, as well as in traditional academic tasks. d. Intelligence is due to heredity, environment, and a complex interaction between the two; ultimately, researchers will probably never be able to separate the relative effects of heredity and environment.

11. Which one of the following statements most accurately reflects the concept of distributed intelligence?

a. How intelligent students are is, to some extent, a function of class size; students achieve at lower levels when they are in larger classes. b. Students almost invariably perform at higher levels in some academic subject areas than they do in others. c. How intelligent children become is, to some extent, a function of the number of siblings they have; children from larger families tend to have slightly lower IQ scores. d. Students can behave more intelligently when they can use outside resources as well as their minds.

12. “A child’s ability to behave intelligently may vary considerably, depending on the particular context, skills, and cognitive processes required by a given task.” This statement is consistent with three of the following conceptualizations of intelligence. With which one is it least consistent?

a. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences b. Sternberg’s triarchic theory c. the concept of distributed intelligence d. Cattell’s concept of fluid intelligence

13. Three of the following are examples of learned behavior. Given the textbook’s definition of learning, which behavior probably does not reflect learning?

a. After many hours of heated debate, Brian begins to modify his religious beliefs. b. Cara suddenly recognizes how the division fact “24 ÷ 4 = 6” is related to the multiplication fact “6 × 4 = 24.” c. David has been running away from German shepherds ever since he was bitten by a German shepherd two years ago. d. Abigail cries when she feels sad.

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

14. Which one of the following statements most accurately describes behaviorists’ view of how learning can best be studied?

a. To study learning scientifically, researchers must confine their investigations to animal research in a laboratory setting. b. The study of learning will be more objective and scientific if only observable events are considered. c. Asking people to describe what they’re thinking as they study is likely to yield the most accurate results. d. Psychologists can determine how learning occurs only if they can identify its physiological basis.

15. Which one of the following statements best characterizes cognitive psychology’s approach to learning?

a. Students are most likely to learn the things they think they will be reinforced for learning. b. Students learn through a series of either-or decisions similar to how computers operate. c. Students’ learning is a function of what they do, mentally, with the information they receive. d. Students’ learning is a function of how stimuli in the environment are organized and sequenced.

16. Which one of the following researchers is drawing an inference about cognitive processes from her observations of behavior?

a. Dr. Aragon finds that students who listen to an organized lecture remember more information than students who listen to an unorganized lecture; she concludes that organized material promotes better learning. b. Dr. Cooper discovers that students remember more when new concepts are illustrated by pictures as well as being verbally described; she concludes that visual imagery helps learning and memory. c. Dr. Burger finds that students who learn information word for word don’t remember it for very long; she concludes that requiring students to learn information verbatim isn’t an effective teaching strategy. d. Dr. Delgado finds that students who listen to foreign language tapes while sleeping don’t remember what they’ve heard; she concludes that being awake is necessary for learning to occur.

17. As human beings, we encounter a great many stimuli at any one time. Which one of the following most accurately reflects cognitive psychologists’ perspective about how we respond to all these stimuli?

a. We cannot remember everything, and we have little control over the things that we do remember. b. We must select the things we think are most important to learn and remember, and ignore the rest. c. We remember virtually everything we experience, but we have difficulty retrieving most of it. d. By learning to use effective long-term memory storage processes, we can eventually begin to remember almost everything we encounter.

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

18. When cognitive psychologists talk about the process of “putting” things in memory, they often use the term:

a. inference-drawing. b. retrieval. c. selectivity. d. storage.

19. Many cognitive psychologists believe that learning and understanding are often constructive in nature. Three of the following scenarios illustrate such construction. Which scenario does not necessarily involve construction in learning?

a. When George reads about the Vietnam War in his history book, he comes to the conclusion that the United States should never have gotten involved in Southeast Asia. b. Mr. McFarland asks his third graders to practice their multiplication tables every day. After a month of such practice, Misty can retrieve all the basic multiplication facts quickly and easily. c. Because the word photosynthesis begins with photo, Jeremy guesses that it must have something to do with taking photographs. d. Although no one has ever told her so, Peggy thinks that the night sky is a big black blanket covering the earth and that the blanket has tiny holes through which the stars shine.

20. Mr. Janus tells his class, “For tomorrow’s class, read pages 23 to 49 in your geography book.” Three of the following students are demonstrating the process of construction in their perceptions of what their teacher has said. Which student is not?

a. Christopher “hears” the teacher say “pages 33 to 39” because the student next to him is coughing loudly. b. Anthony thinks the teacher is saying “history book.” c. Bonita doesn’t hear what the teacher says because she’s thinking about something else. d. Dena understands the teacher even though the teacher speaks with a slight accent and mispronounces the word geography.

21. Michael has just written a short research paper that describes the events surrounding the first transatlantic telegraph cable. As he rereads his paper before giving it to his teacher, he doesn’t notice that he has misspelled Atlantic as “Altantic” on one occasion, even though he knows perfectly well how the word should be spelled. Michael’s proofreading error can best be explained by considering the role of __________ in the construction of meaning.

a. a script b. expectations c. assessment d. ambiguity

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

22. Morris is trying to remember how to spell the word broccoli. He retrieves the first three letters (B R O) and the last three (O L I), then assumes that the “kuh” sound in the middle of the word must be a K. He writes “brokoli” on his paper. Morris’ process of remembering how to spell the word (in this case, incorrectly) illustrates which one of the following concepts?

a. verbal mediation b. a script c. construction in retrieval d. a retrieval cue

23. Which one of the following scenarios best reflects the basic idea of social constructivism?

a. Two students discuss possible interpretations of the proverb, “We only know the worth of water when the well is dry.” b. When a student borrows a classmate’s marker without asking and then forgets to put the cap back on, leaving it dried out and useless by the following morning, her teacher reminds her of one of the class rules: “Respect your classmates’ property.” c. Four students in a study group divide a reading assignment into four sections. Each student reads a section and then teaches the material to the other group members. d. A teacher assigns a laboratory activity using cumbersome equipment that students can operate successfully only by working in pairs.

24. Distributed cognition can best be described as a:

a. group of students thinking about a task or problem together. b. student trying to accomplish several different tasks simultaneously. c. group of students dividing up the various parts of a task that need to be done. d. student choosing one problem-solving strategy over other possible strategies.

25. Which one of the following examples best illustrates the concept of distributed cognition?

a. Rhonda watches her favorite situation comedy while simultaneously eating an apple and doing her homework. b. Edie, Linda, and DeWayne discuss various ways they might solve a physics problem. c. Mark, Jason, and Leanne each solve one-third of their homework problems and then share their results with the other two. d. Reginald thinks about the various plots he might use in the short story he is writing and then eventually chooses one of them.

Unit 3 Examination

132

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. Weston is working on a science project and wants to make his papier-mâché volcano “erupt.” He remembers that when his mother combined vinegar and baking soda while following a recipe, the batter foamed up as she added the vinegar. So he tries mixing vinegar and baking soda in his volcano and the mixture bubbles. Weston is showing ___________ transfer.

a. negative b. general c. specific d. intuitive

2. Mary is majoring in drama. Mary’s parents want her to study advanced mathematics as a way of strengthening her mind; with a stronger mind, they argue, she will be able to learn her lines more easily when she is rehearsing for a play. Based on their reasoning, which one of the following perspectives of transfer do Mary’s parents hold?

a. formal discipline b. specific transfer c. situated cognition d. information processing

3. Which one of the following recommendations is consistent with current beliefs about transfer?

a. “Study German so you’ll have an easier time learning Japanese next year.” b. “Studying calculus will help you think more abstractly about the various subjects you will study in college.” c. “Take computer programming to help you develop your analytical thinking skills.” d. “Use your knowledge of algebra to solve this chemistry equation.”

4. Considering the textbook’s views on general transfer, which one of the following is most likely to transfer across very different situations?

a. the ability to remember complex ideas b. the ability to take good notes on a lecture c. the ability to memorize a poem d. the ability to be creative

Unit 3 Examination

133

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

5. Three of the following are accurate statements about factors that affect transfer. Which statement is inaccurate?

a. Students are more likely to transfer what they have learned when they see it as “belonging” to a particular academic subject area. b. Students are more likely to transfer what they have learned when they have studied it for a lengthy period of time. c. Students are more likely to transfer what they have learned when they have learned it in a meaningful, rather than rote, fashion. d. Students are more likely to transfer what they have learned when they have learned general principles rather than specific facts.

6. In which one of the following situations are we most likely to find transfer from one learning task to the other?

a. Brianne learns how to plant corn and then learns how to prune a hedge. b. Alice learns how to add two-digit numbers and then studies how to add three-digit numbers. c. Devlin learns how to play softball and then learns how to play a card game. d. Cathy learns early British history and then learns early Japanese history.

7. A police officer visits Ms. Duhaime’s first-grade class one morning to talk about safety precautions at home and on the street. The students listen quietly and attentively while the officer speaks. At the end of the visit, the officer and teacher agree that the students’ good behavior warrants some kind of reinforcement. Given what we know about effective reinforcers at different grade levels, their best choice would be:

a. a letter home to parents describing the children’s good behavior. b. plastic toy police “badges” awarded by the officer. c. an official-looking “good behavior” certificate given at the school’s award ceremony the following week. d. twenty minutes of free time at the end of the day.

8. If you wanted to encourage kindergartners to delay gratification, you would be most likely to:

a. occasionally remind them that they will get a bigger reward by waiting a couple of hours. b. tell them that how well they behave at the end of the day is what really counts. c. talk about how their learning efforts today will pay off in the years to come. d. ask them to focus on how good it feels to do something nice for a classmate.

9. Alex loses his best friend, Tyler, after he tattles on Tyler at recess. Alex learns that tattling on friends is not a good idea. The loss of Tyler’s friendship is an example of:

a. removal punishment. b. negative reinforcement. c. presentation punishment. d. positive reinforcement.

Unit 3 Examination

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PSY 430 Educational Psychology

10. Linda wears bell-bottom pants to school and her classmates tease her about them. As soon as she gets home, Linda throws the pants in the trash. Linda’s being teased is an example of:

a. negative reinforcement. b. reinforcement of an incompatible behavior. c. removal punishment. d. presentation punishment.

11. Only one of the following consequences has been shown to be an effective and appropriate punishment for most students. Which one is it?

a. suspension from school b. scolding c. embarrassment in front of classmates d. extra homework

12. When Rochelle has an on-the-road lesson as part of her driver education class, she fails to stop at a school crossing zone, as is required by law. Her instructor has her drive around the block several times and stop each time at the crossing zone. He also insists that, once she has stopped, she must wait at least eight seconds before proceeding. The instructor’s strategy illustrates the use of __________ as a way of changing her behavior.

a. response cost b. a logical consequence c. intermittent reinforcement d. positive-practice overcorrection

13. Considering what we know about the kinds of models people are likely to imitate, we can guess that the girls in our classes will be least likely to imitate:

a. Brianne, head majorette in the school band. b. Anita, a skillful auto mechanic. c. Darla, a graceful dancer. d. Claudia, the most popular girl in school.

14. From the perspective of social cognitive theory, why might inner-city African American students learn more from an African American model who grew up in a ghetto than from a model of a different race or background?

a. because the students will view the African American model’s behavior as being applicable to their own situation b. because the students are more likely to realize that the African American model has prestige c. because the African American model is more likely to behave in a gender-appropriate manner d. because the students are more likely to perceive the African American model as being competent

Unit 3 Examination

135

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

15. Social cognitive theorists propose that three of the following are essential for students to learn successfully from models. Which one is not essential?

a. attention to the model b. reinforcement for good performance c. motivation to perform the behavior d. memory of the observed behavior

16. Only one of the following definitely illustrates high self-efficacy. Which one is the best example of self-efficacy?

a. Carmen enjoys being with her friends. b. Bryn swims the fastest butterfly on the swim team. c. Amy recently got a score of 120 on an intelligence test. d. Danielle knows she is a good singer.

17. In what way does self-efficacy differ from the term self-concept?

a. Self-efficacy results primarily from vicarious reinforcement and punishment. b. Self-efficacy varies depending on the specific task to be performed. c. Self-efficacy refers only to behaviors that people learn through modeling. d. Self-efficacy appears only after people begin to regulate their own behavior.

18. Jim has a high sense of self-efficacy regarding his ability to work with wood. Based on this information, we would predict three of the following from social cognitive theory. Which one of the following would we not necessarily predict?

a. Jim will be a bit careless when he works with wood, so he will often make silly little mistakes. b. Jim will frequently choose activities that involve working with wood. c. Compared to Joe, who has low self-efficacy, Jim will do a better job at woodworking tasks. d. If Jim has difficulty at a task requiring his woodworking skills, he will tend to “try, try again” until he gets it right.

19. Identify the student who appears to have a mastery goal rather than a performance goal.

a. When Abby gets a new assignment, she likes to set it aside for a day or so before she actually begins to work on it. b. When given the choice between taking an easy class or a more challenging one, Dana chooses the challenging one. c. Bonnie is a perfectionist who gets upset when her test performance is anything but A+. d. Cora is easily distracted by the many stimuli competing for her attention in the classroom.

Unit 3 Examination

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PSY 430 Educational Psychology

20. Which one of the following students clearly has a mastery goal rather than a performance goal?

a. Alice stays away from science courses because she’s never done very well in science. b. Dinah doesn’t worry about making mistakes as long as she knows she’s making progress. c. Boris wants the recognition that being a star football player will bring him. d. Cal is relieved to learn he passed his English composition course.

21. Three of the following strategies should promote productive achievement goals. Which strategy is not recommended?

a. Encourage students to focus on long-term rather than short-term goals. b. Commend students for truly understanding material rather than just memorizing it. c. Encourage students to rely on one another for occasional academic assistance and support. d. Show students how the things they learn in class are relevant to their present and future needs.

22. Which one of the following students most clearly has a work-avoidance goal?

a. Loni is so active in student government that she often doesn’t have time to get her homework done. b. Chris asks for his teacher’s help on something he is perfectly capable of doing on his own. c. Frederick stayed up so late last night watching television that he can hardly stay awake in class. d. Nancy wonders why she has to work harder than her friends to get the same grades they do.

23. Three of the following statements accurately describe the diversity we are likely to see in students’ career goals. Which statement is not accurate?

a. Students’ career choices are to some extent dependent on the values they assign to various professions. b. Many young children reach relatively stable decisions about which career they want to pursue; adolescents change their minds fairly frequently. c. Despite more open-mindedness about career options in recent years, many students continue to aspire to careers that are stereotypically “for” their own gender. d. Many children and adolescents from low-income neighborhoods express interest in becoming well-educated professionals (e.g., doctors, lawyers, teachers).

Unit 3 Examination

137

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

24. Which one of the following is the best example of a student attributing success to internal factors?

a. Sue Ellen has just gotten a good grade on her geography test. She is proud that she did so well and glad that she studied hard. b. Polly’s teacher has just told her that she will be the group leader for her reading group next quarter. Polly is glad her teacher is in a good mood today. c. Renata has just gotten a good grade on her math test and she is glad that her mother got her a math tutor. d. Nita has just gotten an A on her final exam in world history and is feeling very grateful to the teacher for her good grade.

25. Which one of the following students is attributing success or failure on a geology test to an internal source and thinks the cause is unstable and controllable?

a. Duncan said he did well on the test because he studied hard. b. Joe said he studied hard, but he failed because he is just not good in geology. c. Jane said she failed the test because it was too difficult. d. Emily said she did well on her test because she is smart in science.

Unit 4 Examination

180

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. Mr. Phillips wants his students to develop the ability to separate and control variables in scientific experimentation. Which one of the following instructional methods is most likely to help his students achieve this goal?

a. individualized assignments using computer spreadsheets b. unstructured discovery-learning activities c. small-group reciprocal-teaching activities d. scaffolded inquiry-learning activities

2. Which one of the following conditions is recommended for effective learning in a discovery- learning activity?

a. having a lesson that has been broken down into small, discrete pieces b. having freedom to explore one’s environment without any structure or restraint c. having some prior knowledge about the material being explored d. having an advance organizer for the lesson

3. Which one of the following is the best example of an authentic in-class activity?

a. discussing reasons why World War I occurred b. putting definitions of new terms in your own words c. listing four different kinds of sedimentary rocks d. designing a bridge using principles of physics

4. Which one of the following uses of a computer in instruction is most similar to an authentic activity?

a. a computer-based instructional program that teaches the various parts of the human digestive system b. a computer-based instructional program that teaches the basics of first aid c. a computer simulation that allows students to conduct an experiment d. a computer game that promotes automaticity for basic math facts

5. The four teachers below are assigning homework to their students. Which teacher is giving an assignment that’s inconsistent with general recommendations regarding the appropriate use of homework?

a. Mr. Needham asks his first graders to bring something from home that begins with the letter B. b. Ms. Wong asks her sixth graders to make up sentences using each of their new spelling words. c. Ms. Powell asks her high school algebra students to read the next two chapters in their textbook and then do the problems at the end of each chapter. d. Mr. Rhodes asks his eighth graders to write the answers to a series of questions based on material they’ve been studying over the past week.

Unit 4 Examination

181

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

6. Three of the following are purposes that asking questions in class can serve. Which one is not a typical use of asking questions?

a. to decrease the extent to which students need to cognitively process classroom material b. to encourage students to elaborate on classroom material c. to help students monitor their own comprehension of classroom material d. to determine whether students understand classroom material

7. Ms. Girardi, a sixth-grade teacher, is explaining an assignment. She notices two students passing notes to one another. While continuing to discuss the assignment, she moves toward the students and confiscates the written notes. Then she walks back to the front of the class, still continuing her explanation, and asks Mark, who is daydreaming, to answer a question. This scenario best illustrates which one of the following classroom management skills?

a. planning for transitions b. withitness c. negative reinforcement d. scaffolding

8. Many students in Ms. Janklow’s class seem to have little intrinsic motivation for learning math, science or social studies. Their minds are more apt to be on peer relationships (who the “popular kids” are, who bullies whom on the playground, etc.) than on their studies. Without knowing anything else about Ms. Janklow’s students, your best guess would be that they are:

a. kindergartners. b. seventh graders. c. fourth graders. d. second graders.

9. From the textbook’s perspective, which one of the following classroom management strategies is probably most important for students from diverse ethnic backgrounds?

a. setting limits b. planning effectively for transitions c. creating a supportive climate d. demonstrating withitness

10. Three of the following describe recommendations that the textbook offers for helping students with special needs. Which statement is inconsistent with the textbook’s recommendations?

a. Give students with physical disabilities any additional time they may need to complete assigned tasks. b. When students have significant general delays in cognitive development, give them explicit feedback about their behavior. c. When students have specific cognitive or academic difficulties, teach them strategies for organizing their time more effectively. d. When students have social or behavioral problems, vary the classroom routine considerably from one day to the next.

Unit 4 Examination

182

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

11. Which one of the following best illustrates collective self-efficacy of teachers?

a. A third-grade teacher and a fourth-grade teacher at North Elementary School have combined their two classes into a single, larger class. Sometimes they team-teach the entire group. At other times they divide the class into two smaller groups, one of which is ready for more advanced work than the other. b. The teachers at South Elementary School have coordinated what they do at each grade level so that at any particular grade, students master the knowledge and skills they will need in the following grade. c. The English teachers at East High School have agreed on how they will teach the required freshman English class. That way, students will have a similar classroom experience no matter which teacher they have for the course. d. The teachers at West Middle School confer weekly about students who they believe are at risk for academic failure, and they are confident that by working together, they can help these students be successful at school.

12. Three of the following strategies are recommended for conducting effective parent-teacher conferences. Which strategy is not necessarily recommended?

a. Minimize your use of educational jargon. b. Prepare ahead of time by reviewing what you know about the student. c. Emphasize that the student’s education is ultimately your responsibility rather than that of parents. d. Encourage parents to share their perspectives and ideas.

13. Which one of the following is a drawback of using essay questions on a paper-pencil assessment?

a. Lengthy essay questions can limit sampling of the content domain being assessed. b. Guessing is likely to inflate students’ scores considerably. c. Reliability tends to be lower than that for recognition tasks. d. The administration of essay questions is difficult to standardize.

14. From the textbook’s perspective, which one of the following is the primary advantage of allowing students to use reference materials during a paper-pencil assessment?

a. Students are more likely to learn material meaningfully if they know they are going to have an open-book test rather than a closed-book test. b. Such a procedure is less likely to lead to test anxiety than would otherwise be true. c. Students don’t have to study the material ahead of time; they can simply learn it during the assessment session. d. Such a procedure better assesses students’ ability to apply material that they don’t necessarily need to commit to memory.

Unit 4 Examination

183

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

15. When we give high school students instructions about a summative classroom assessment, we should:

a. assume that they have had experience with such standard item types as true-false and multiple-choice. b. always deduct points for any grammatical or spelling errors. c. give them considerable freedom about how to respond. d. communicate clear guidelines about how they should respond.

16. Three of the following are accurate statements about cheating in the classroom. Which one is not necessarily accurate?

a. Students are more likely to cheat if they think their teacher is a “softie” who grades leniently. b. Students are more likely to cheat if they have performance goals rather than mastery goals. c. Students are more likely to cheat if they think their teacher’s expectations for them are unreasonably high. d. Students are more likely to cheat if they think an assessment instrument doesn’t reflect classroom objectives.

17. Which one of the following illustrates the use of a rubric in a classroom assessment?

a. In a swimming test, students are asked to swim one lap each of the breaststroke, backstroke and crawl. b. A math assignment presents a complex problem with several parts and asks students to break it down into at least five simpler problems. c. Responses to a 10-point essay in a history class are given 5 points for describing historical events accurately, 4 points for explaining how the events are interrelated, and 1 point for using complete sentences throughout the essay. d. A science test has 30 multiple-choice questions, 10 alternative-response questions, 3 short-answer questions and one essay.

18. The four students below have just received feedback about their test performance. With the textbook’s discussion of assessment and feedback in mind, choose the student who is most likely to benefit from the feedback he or she has received.

a. Garry got his multiple-choice science test back with the errors circled in red and the comment, “You need to study harder for the next test” written at the top of the page. b. Kerrie received her math test with any incorrect answers corrected in red and with the comment, “You have learned how to ‘carry’ in addition but are having trouble with ‘borrowing’ in subtraction.” c. Jerry could not see his geography test after it was scored as his teacher plans to use the test again with next year’s class. However, he’s gotten the feedback, “You need to work more on the characteristics of the countries we’re studying.” d. Harry received his history essay test with the comment, “You have a thorough knowledge of history, but your discussion is vague and disorganized.”

Unit 4 Examination

184

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

19. The textbook author suggests that it is not a good idea to incorporate more than a few extra- credit points into students’ grades. Why?

a. Incorporating extra-credit work into classroom grades typically affects only the grades of high-achieving students, so it is not worth the time and trouble. b. The time spent on extra-credit assignments is better spent planning classroom activities. c. Scores on extra-credit projects frequently suffer from low reliability. d. Too many opportunities for extra-credit points allow students who have not met instructional objectives to get good grades.

20. Which one of the following statements best reflects the textbook’s recommendation with regard to assigning criterion-referenced or norm-referenced grades?

a. Assign criterion-referenced grades in the lower elementary grades and in all low-ability classes; assign norm-referenced grades in high-ability classes in the middle school and high school grades. b. Assign norm-referenced grades at all grade levels to the extent that such is possible. c. Assign criterion-referenced grades at all grade levels to the extent that such is possible. d. Assign criterion-referenced grades at the elementary level, but assign norm-referenced grades at the high school level.

21. Three of the following statements are accurate with regard to the advantages of portfolios. Which statement is false?

a. Portfolios are useful for fostering students’ self-evaluation skills. b. Portfolios provide a means through which instruction and assessment can be easily interrelated. c. As a means of summarizing students’ achievement, portfolios have greater practicality than final grades. d. Portfolios can reflect the complex nature of students’ achievement.

22. For which one of the following classes would it be most helpful to create an electronic portfolio rather than a paper portfolio?

a. a high school creative writing class b. a high school debating class c. a middle school geography class d. a middle school math class

Unit 4 Examination

185

PSY 430 Educational Psychology

23. Three of the teachers below are using strategies consistent with the textbook’s recommendations regarding the use of portfolios. Which one is not consistent?

a. Ms. Gaudet lists the criteria that she will use to evaluate students’ portfolios. b. Ms. James tells each of her students which specific artifacts they should include in their class portfolios. c. Ms. Salih asks students to include at least four writing samples written at various times during the school year in order to show how they have improved over time. d. Ms. Shaklee asks her students to include a brief statement about each of the entries they include in their portfolios.

24. How can teachers most accurately assess the content validity of a standardized achievement test?

a. Calculate the correlation between the scores of the norm group and the scores of the students in the classroom. b. Consult the test manual regarding content validity data for the norm group. c. Compare the school curriculum to a table of specifications for the test. d. Calculate the correlation between the students’ scores on the test and their scores on a similar achievement test.

25. Which one of the following questions is more likely to be found on a scholastic aptitude test than on an achievement test?

a. Of what two elements does water consist? b. What’s missing in this picture of a chair? c. How is the circumference of a circle calculated? d. What significant historical event happened at Waterloo, Belgium, in 1815?

Social Psychology

December 1, 2022/in Uncategorized /by SK

Social Psychology Ninth Edition

Elliot Aronson

Timothy D. Wilson

Robin M. Akert

Samuel R. Sommers

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A01_ARON6544_09_SE_FM.indd 1 28/05/15 1:47 AM

Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on pages 567–572.

Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Aronson, Elliot. Social psychology / Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson, Robin M. Akert, Samuel R. Sommers. — Ninth Edition. pages cm Revised editon of the authors’ Social psychology, 2013. ISBN 978-0-13-393654-4 (Student Edition) 1. Social psychology. I. Wilson, Timothy D. II. Akert, Robin M. III. Title. HM1033.A78 2016 302—dc23 2015016513

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Student Edition ISBN-10: 0-13-393654-6 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-393654-4

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A01_ARON6544_09_SE_FM.indd 2 28/05/15 1:47 AM

To my grandchildren: Jacob, Jason, Ruth, Eliana, Natalie, Rachel, and Leo. My hope is that your capacity for empathy and compassion will help make

the world a better place.

—E.A.

To my family, Deirdre Smith, Christopher Wilson, and Leigh Wilson

—T.D.W.

To my mentor, colleague, and friend, Dane Archer

—R.M.A.

To my students—past, present, and future—for making coming to work each morning fun, educational, and unpredictable.

—S.R.S.

A01_ARON6544_09_SE_FM.indd 3 28/05/15 1:47 AM

1 Introducing Social Psychology 1

2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research 23

3 Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World 51

4 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People 84

5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context 119

6 The Need to Justify Our Actions: The Costs and Benefits of Dissonance Reduction 157

7 Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 188

8 Conformity: Influencing Behavior 226

9 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups 269

10 Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships 303

11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? 344

12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It? 375

13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures 413

Social Psychology in Action 1 Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future 455

Social Psychology in Action 2 Social Psychology and Health 476

Social Psychology in Action 3 Social Psychology and the Law 496

Brief Contents

A01_ARON6544_09_SE_FM.indd 4 28/05/15 1:47 AM

Preface xi About the Authors xvii Special Tips for Students xix

1 Introducing Social Psychology 1 Defining Social Psychology 3 Try IT! How Do Other People Affect your Values? 3

Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common Sense 4 How Social Psychology Differs from Its Closest Cousins 6

Try IT! Social Situations and Shyness 7

The Power of the Situation 9 The Importance of Explanation 10 The Importance of Interpretation 12

Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives 15 The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About Ourselves 16

SuffERiNg AND SELf-JuSTifiCATioN

The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate 17 ExpECTATioNS AbouT ThE SoCiAL WoRLD

Summary 20 • Test Yourself 21

2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research 23

Social Psychology: An Empirical Science 24 Try IT! Social Psychology Quiz: What’s your Prediction? 25

Formulating Hypotheses and Theories 25 iNSpiRATioN fRoM EARLiER ThEoRiES and ReSeaRch • hYpoTheSeS BaSed oN pERSoNAL obSERvATioNS

Research Designs 27

The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior 28 eThnogRaphY • aRchival analYSiS • limiTS of ThE obSERvATioNAL METhoD

The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior 30 SuRveYS • limiTS of The coRRelaTional meThod: CoRRELATioN DoES NoT EquAL CAuSATioN

Try IT! Correlation and Causation: Knowing the Difference 33

The Experimental Method: Answering Causal Questions 34 independenT and dependenT vaRiaBleS • inTeRnal validiTY in expeRimenTS • exTeRnal validiTY in expeRimenTS • field expeRimenTS • ReplicaTionS and meTa-analYSiS • BaSic veRSuS applied ReSeaRch

New Frontiers in Social Psychological Research 42 Culture and Social Psychology 43 The Evolutionary Approach 43 Social Neuroscience 44

Ethical Issues in Social Psychology 45 Summary 48 • Test Yourself 49

3 Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World 51

On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking 53 People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic Thinking with Schemas 54 Which Schemas Do We Use? Accessibility and Priming 56 Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 58

Types of Automatic Thinking 61 Automatic Goal Pursuit 62 Automatic Decision Making 63 Automatic Thinking and Metaphors About the Body and the Mind 63 Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental Heuristics 65

how eaSilY doeS iT come To mind? The availaBiliTY heuRiSTic • how SimilaR iS a To B? The REpRESENTATivENESS hEuRiSTiC

Try IT! reasoning Quiz 69

peRSonaliTY TeSTS and The RepReSenTaTiveneSS hEuRiSTiC

Cultural Differences in Social Cognition 70 Cultural Determinants of Schemas 70 Holistic versus Analytic Thinking 71

Controlled Social Cognition: High-Effort Thinking 73 Controlled Thinking and Free Will 73

Try IT! Can you Predict your (or your Friend’s) Future? 76

Mentally Undoing the Past: Counterfactual Reasoning 76 Improving Human Thinking 77

Try IT! How Well Do you reason? 78

Watson Revisited 79 Summary 80 • Test Yourself 82

4 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People 84

Nonverbal Communication 86 Try IT! Using your Voice as a Nonverbal Cue 87

Facial Expressions of Emotion 87 evoluTion and facial expReSSionS • whY iS decoding SomeTimeS difficulT?

Culture and the Channels of Nonverbal Communication 90

First Impressions: Quick but Long-Lasting 93 The Lingering Influence of Initial Impressions 94 Using First Impressions and Nonverbal Communication to Our Advantage 95

Contents

A01_ARON6544_09_SE_FM.indd 5 28/05/15 1:47 AM

vi Contents

Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question 97 The Nature of the Attribution Process 97

Try IT! Listen as People Make Attributions 98

The Covariation Model: Internal versus External Attributions 98 The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists 101

ThE RoLE of pERCEpTuAL SALiENCE iN ThE fuNDAMENTAL aTTRiBuTion eRRoR • The Two-STep aTTRiBuTion pRoCESS

Self-Serving Attributions 106 The “Bias Blind Spot” 108

Culture and Social Perception 109 Holistic versus Analytic Thinking 110

SoCiAL NEuRoSCiENCE EviDENCE

Cultural Differences in the Fundamental Attribution Error 111 Culture and Other Attributional Biases 113 Summary 115 • Test Yourself 117

5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context 119

The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept 120 Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept 122

Try IT! A Measure of Independence and Interdependence 123

Functions of the Self 124

Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection 125 Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory 125

Try IT! Measure your Private Self- Consciousness 127

Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know 127 The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons 128

Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior 130 Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation 131 Mindsets and Motivation 134 Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion 134 Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal 137

Using Other People to Know Ourselves 139 Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others 140 Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People’s Views 141 Knowing Our Future Feelings by Consulting Other People 143

Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self 144

Impression Management: All the World’s a Stage 146 Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping 147 Culture, Impression Management, and Self-Enhancement 149

Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves 150 Summary 153 • Test Yourself 155

6 The Need to Justify Our Actions: The Costs and Benefits of Dissonance Reduction 157

The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance 158 When Cognitions Conflict 158

whY we oveReSTimaTe The pain of diSappoinTmenT

Dissonance and the Self-Concept 162 Decisions, Decisions, Decisions 163

diSToRTing ouR likeS and diSlikeS • The peRmanence of ThE DECiSioN

Try IT! The Advantage of Finality 165

cReaTing The illuSion of iRRevocaBiliTY • The deciSion To Behave immoRallY

Dissonance, Culture, and the Brain 167 diSSonance in The BRain • diSSonance acRoSS CuLTuRES

Self-Justification in Everyday Life 169 The Justification of Effort 169

Try IT! Justifying What you’ve Done 171

External versus Internal Justification 171

counTeRaTTiTudinal advocacY

Punishment and Self-Persuasion 173 The laSTing effecTS of Self-peRSuaSion • NoT JuST TANgibLE REWARDS oR puNiShMENTS

The Hypocrisy Paradigm 176 Justifying Good Deeds and Harmful Acts 177

The Ben fRanklin effecT: JuSTifYing acTS of kindneSS

Try IT! The Internal Consequences of Doing Good 179

dehumanizing The enemY: JuSTifYing cRuelTY

Some Final Thoughts on Dissonance: Learning from Our Mistakes 181

poliTicS and Self-JuSTificaTion • ovERCoMiNg DiSSoNANCE

Summary 185 • Test Yourself 186

7 Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 188

The Nature and Origin of Attitudes 190 Where Do Attitudes Come From? 190

cogniTivelY BaSed aTTiTudeS • affecTivelY BaSed ATTiTuDES

Try IT! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes 192

BehavioRallY BaSed aTTiTudeS

Explicit versus Implicit Attitudes 193

When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 195 Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors 196 Predicting Deliberative Behaviors 196

Specific aTTiTudeS • SuBJecTive noRmS • peRceived bEhAvioRAL CoNTRoL

How Do Attitudes Change? 199 Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior: Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited 199 Persuasive Communications and Attitude Change 200

A01_ARON6544_09_SE_FM.indd 6 28/05/15 1:47 AM

vii

ThE CENTRAL AND pERiphERAL RouTES To peRSuaSion • The moTivaTion To paY aTTenTion To The aRgumenTS • The aBiliTY To paY aTTenTion To The aRgumenTS • how To achieve LoNg-LASTiNg ATTiTuDE ChANgE

Emotion and Attitude Change 205 feaR-aRouSing communicaTionS • emoTionS aS a heuRiSTic • emoTion and diffeRenT TYpeS of ATTiTuDES

Attitude Change and the Body 209

The Power of Advertising 210 How Advertising Works 211 Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control? 212

DEbuNkiNg ThE CLAiMS AbouT SubLiMiNAL adveRTiSing • laBoRaToRY evidence foR SuBliminal iNfLuENCE

Try IT! Consumer Brand Attitudes 215

Advertising, Stereotypes, and Culture 215 gendeR STeReoTYpeS and expecTaTionS • CuLTuRE AND ADvERTiSiNg

Resisting Persuasive Messages 219

Attitude Inoculation 219 Being Alert to Product Placement 219 Resisting Peer Pressure 220 When Persuasion Attempts Backfire: Reactance Theory 221 Summary 223 • Test Yourself 224

8 Conformity: Influencing Behavior 226 Conformity: When and Why 228

Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know What’s “Right” 230

The Importance of Being Accurate 233 When Informational Conformity Backfires 234 When Will People Conform to Informational Social Influence? 235

when The SiTuaTion iS amBiguouS • when The SiTuaTion iS a cRiSiS • when oTheR people aRe expeRTS

Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted 236

Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch Line-Judgment Studies 238 The Importance of Being Accurate, Revisited 241 The Consequences of Resisting Normative Social Influence 243

Try IT! Unveiling Normative Social Influence by Breaking the rules 244

When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence? 244

when The gRoup gRowS laRgeR • when The gRoup iS impoRTanT • when one haS no allieS in The gRoup • WhEN ThE gRoup’S CuLTuRE iS CoLLECTiviSTiC

Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many 248

Strategies for Using Social Influence 249 The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms 250

Using Norms to Change Behavior: Beware the “Boomerang Effect” 252 Other Tactics of Social Influence 253

Obedience to Authority 256 The Role of Normative Social Influence 259 The Role of Informational Social Influence 260 Other Reasons Why We Obey 261

confoRming To The wRong noRm • Self-JuSTificaTion • The loSS of peRSonal ReSponSiBiliTY

The Obedience Studies, Then and Now 263 iT’S NoT AbouT AggRESSioN

Summary 266 • Test Yourself 267

9 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups 269

What Is a Group? 270 Why Do People Join Groups? 270 The Composition and Functions of Groups 271

Social noRmS • Social RoleS • gRoup coheSiveneSS • gRoup diveRSiTY

Individual Behavior in a Group Setting 275 Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others Energizes Us 276

Simple veRSuS difficulT TaSkS • aRouSal and The dominanT ReSponSe • whY The pReSence of oThERS CAuSES ARouSAL

Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others Relaxes Us 279 Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing: Who Slacks Off the Most? 280 Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd 281

DEiNDiviDuATioN MAkES pEopLE fEEL LESS accounTaBle • deindividuaTion incReaSeS oBedience To gRoup noRmS • deindividuaTion oNLiNE

Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads Better Than One? 283

Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit Good Problem Solving 284

failuRe To ShaRe unique infoRmaTion • gRoupThink: manY headS, one mind

Group Polarization: Going to Extremes 287 Leadership in Groups 289

leadeRShip and peRSonaliTY • leadeRShip STYleS • The RighT peRSon in The RighT SiTuaTion • gendeR and leadeRShip • culTuRe AND LEADERShip

Conflict and Cooperation 293 Social Dilemmas 293

Try IT! The Prisoner’s Dilemma 295

iNCREASiNg CoopERATioN iN ThE pRiSoNER’S DiLEMMA

Using Threats to Resolve Conflict 296

EffECTS of CoMMuNiCATioN

Negotiation and Bargaining 298 Summary 300 • Test Yourself 301

Contents vii

A01_ARON6544_09_SE_FM.indd 7 28/05/15 1:47 AM

10 Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships 303

What Predicts Attraction? 305 The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect 306

Try IT! Mapping the Effect of Propinquity in your Life 306

Similarity 308 opinionS and peRSonaliTY • inTeReSTS and expeRienceS • appeaRance • geneTicS • Some final commenTS aBouT SimilaRiTY

Reciprocal Liking 310 Physical Attractiveness 311

whaT iS aTTRacTive? • culTuRal STandaRdS of BeauTY • The poweR of familiaRiTY • ASSuMpTioNS AbouT ATTRACTivE pEopLE

Evolution and Mate Selection 316 evoluTion and Sex diffeRenceS • alTeRnaTe pERSpECTivES oN SEx DiffERENCES

Making Connections in the Age of Technology 320 Attraction 2.0: Mate Preference in an Online Era 321 The Promise and Pitfalls of Online Dating 323

Love and Close Relationships 325 Defining Love: Companionship and Passion 325

Try IT! Passionate Love Scale 327

Culture and Love 327 Attachment Styles in Intimate Relationships 329 This Is Your Brain . . . in Love 331 Theories of Relationship Satisfaction: Social Exchange and Equity 332

Social exchange TheoRY • equiTY TheoRY

Ending Intimate Relationships 338 The Process of Breaking Up 338 The Experience of Breaking Up 339 Summary 341 • Test Yourself 342

11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? 344

Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? 345

Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes 346 kin SelecTion • The RecipRociTY noRm

Try IT! The Dictator Game 347

gRoup SELECTioN

Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping 348 Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping 349

Personal Qualities and Prosocial Behavior: Why Do Some People Help More Than Others? 353

Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality 354 Try IT! Empathic Concern 354

Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior 355

Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior 355 Religion and Prosocial Behavior 357 The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior 357

effecTS of poSiTive moodS: feel good, do good • fEEL bAD, Do gooD

Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior: When Will People Help? 359

Environment: Rural versus Urban 359 Residential Mobility 360 The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect 361

noTicing an evenT • inTeRpReTing The evenT aS an emeRgencY • aSSuming ReSponSiBiliTY • knowing how To help • deciding To implemenT The help

Effects of the Media: Video Games and Music Lyrics 366

How Can Helping Be Increased? 368 Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders Will Intervene 368 Increasing Volunteerism 370 Positive Psychology, Human Virtues, and Prosocial Behavior 371 Summary 372 • Test Yourself 373

12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It? 375

Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Optional? 376 The Evolutionary View 377

AggRESSioN iN oThER ANiMALS

Culture and Aggression 378 ChANgES iN AggRESSioN ACRoSS TiME and culTuReS • culTuReS of honoR

Gender and Aggression 381 phYSical aggReSSion • RELATioNAL AggRESSioN

Try IT! Do Women and Men Differ in Their Experiences with Aggression? 383

Learning to Behave Aggressively 383 Some Physiological Influences 385

The effecTS of alcohol • The effecTS of pAiN AND hEAT

Social Situations and Aggression 387 Frustration and Aggression 388 Provocation and Reciprocation 389

Try IT! Insults and Aggression 390

Weapons as Aggressive Cues 390 Putting the Elements Together: The Case of Sexual Assault 391

moTivaTionS foR Rape • Sexual ScRipTS and The pRoBlem of conSenT • puTTing ThE ELEMENTS TogEThER

Violence and the Media 394 Studying the Effects of Media Violence 394

expeRimenTal STudieS • longiTudinal STudieS

The Problem of Determining Cause and Effect 397

viii Contents

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How to Decrease Aggression 399 Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression? 399

uSiNg puNiShMENT oN vioLENT ADuLTS

Catharsis and Aggression 401 ThE EffECTS of AggRESSivE ACTS oN SubSEquENT aggReSSion • Blaming The vicTim of ouR AggRESSioN

What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger? 403 vENTiNg vERSuS SELf-AWARENESS

Try IT! Controlling your Anger 404

TRAiNiNg iN CoMMuNiCATioN AND pRobLEM-SoLviNg SkillS • counTeRing dehumanizaTion BY Building empaThY

Disrupting the Rejection-Rage Cycle 406 Summary 408 • Test Yourself 411

13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures 413

Defining Prejudice 414 The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes 415

fRom caTegoRieS To STeReoTYpeS

Try IT! Stereotypes and Aggression 417

whaT’S wRong wiTh poSiTive STeReoTYpeS? • STeReoTYpeS of gendeR

The Affective Component: Emotions 420

Try IT! Identifying your Prejudices 421

The Behavioral Component: Discrimination 421 Racial diScRiminaTion • gendeR diScRiminaTion • ThE ACTivATioN of pREJuDiCE

Detecting Hidden Prejudices 427 Ways of Identifying Suppressed Prejudices 427 Ways of Identifying Implicit Prejudices 428

The Effects of Prejudice on the Victim 430 The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 430 Stereotype Threat 431

Causes of Prejudice 434 Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules 434 Social Identity Theory: Us versus Them 436

eThnocenTRiSm • in-gRoup BiaS • ouT-gRoup homogeneiTY • Blaming The vicTim • JuSTifYing feelingS of enTiTlemenT and SupeRioRiTY

Realistic Conflict Theory 440 ECoNoMiC AND poLiTiCAL CoMpETiTioN

Reducing Prejudice 442 The Contact Hypothesis 443 When Contact Reduces Prejudice 445

WhERE DESEgREgATioN WENT WRoNg

Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw Classroom 447

whY doeS JigSaw woRk?

Try IT! Jigsaw-Type Group Study 449

ThE gRADuAL SpREAD of CoopERATivE AND iNTERDEpENDENT LEARNiNg

Summary 451 • Test Yourself 453

Social Psychology in Action 1 Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future 455

Applied Research in Social Psychology 458 Capitalizing on the Experimental Method 459

ASSESSiNg ThE EffECTivENESS of inTeRvenTionS • poTenTial RiSkS of Social iNTERvENTioNS

Social Psychology to the Rescue 461

Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable Future 461

Conveying and Changing Social Norms 462

Try IT! reducing Littering with Descriptive Norms 463

Keeping Track of Consumption 464 Introducing a Little Competitiveness 465 Inducing Hypocrisy 465 Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes 467

Happiness and a Sustainable Lifestyle 469 What Makes People Happy? 469

SaTiSfYing RelaTionShipS • flow: Becoming engaged in SomeThing You enJoY • accumulaTe expeRienceS, noT ThingS • helping oTheRS

Try IT! Applying the research to your Own Life 472

Do People Know What Makes Them Happy? 472 Summary 473 • Test Yourself 474

Social Psychology in Action 2 Social Psychology and Health 476

Stress and Human Health 477 Resilience 478 Effects of Negative Life Events 479

Try IT! The College Life Stress Inventory 480

LiMiTS of STRESS iNvENToRiES

Perceived Stress and Health 481 Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived Control 482

iNCREASiNg pERCEivED CoNTRoL iN nuRSing homeS • diSeaSe, conTRol, and WELL-bEiNg

Coping with Stress 486 Gender Differences in Coping with Stress 487 Social Support: Getting Help from Others 487

Try IT! Social Support 488

Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events 489

Prevention: Promoting Healthier Behavior 491 Summary 493 • Test Yourself 494

Contents ix

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Social Psychology in Action 3 Social Psychology and the Law 496

Eyewitness Testimony 498 Why Are Eyewitnesses Often Wrong? 498

acquiSiTion • SToRage • ReTRieval

Judging Whether Eyewitnesses Are Mistaken 503 ReSponding quicklY • The pRoBlem wiTh veRBalizaTion • poST-idenTificaTion fEEDbACk

Try IT! The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 506

The Recovered Memory Debate 506

Juries: Group Processes in Action 509 How Jurors Process Information During the Trial 509 Confessions: Are They Always What They Seem? 510 Deliberations in the Jury Room 512 Summary 513 • Test Yourself 514

Glossary 516

References 522

Credits 567

Name Index 573

Subject Index 588

Answer Key AK-1

x Contents

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Preface

When we began writing this book, our overrid-ing goal was to capture the excitement of social psychology. We have been pleased to hear, in many kind letters and e-mail messages from professors and students, that we succeeded. One of our favorite responses was from a student who said that the book was so inter- esting that she always saved it for last, to reward herself for finishing her other work. With that one student, at least, we succeeded in making our book an enjoyable, fascinating story, not a dry report of facts and figures.

There is always room for improvement, however, and our goal in this, the ninth edition, is to make the field of social psychology an even better read. When we teach the course, there is nothing more gratifying than seeing the sleepy stu- dents in the back row sit up with interest and say, “Wow, I didn’t know that! Now that’s interesting.” We hope that students who read our book will have that same reaction.

What’s New in This Edition? We are pleased to add new features to the ninth edition that we believe will appeal to students and make it easier for them to learn the material. Each chapter begins with some learning objectives, which are repeated in the sections of the chapter that are most relevant to them and in the chapter- ending summary. All major sections of every chapter now end with review quizzes. Research shows that students learn material better when they are tested frequently, thus these section quizzes, as well as the test questions at the end of every chapter, should be helpful learning aids. Every chapter now has several writing prompts that instructors can decide to assign or not. In addition, we have retained and refined features that proved to be popular in the pre- vious edition. For example, many of the Try It! exercises, which invite students to apply specific concepts to their everyday behavior, have been revised or replaced.

We have updated the ninth edition substantially, with numerous references to new research. Here is a sampling of the new research that is covered:

• A signature of our book continues to be Chapter 2, “Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research,” a readable, student-friendly chapter on social psychol- ogy research methods. This chapter has been updated for the ninth edition with new references and examples.

• Chapter 3, “Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World,” has been reorganized to make the struc- ture clearer to students. There are now four major sec- tions: On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking; Types of Automatic Thinking, Cultural Differences in Social Cognition, and Controlled Social Thinking. There are

also new sections on automatic goal pursuit and deci- sion making. Finally, the chapter has been updated with numerous new references.

• Chapter 4, “Social Perception: How We Come to Un- derstand Other People,” now includes a new section on “First Impressions: Quick but Long-Lasting,” with new coverage of thin-slicing, belief perseverance, and the use of nonverbal communication to personal advantage (e.g., in the form of power posing). The chapter also pre- sents updated research and conclusions regarding the universality of emotional expression, and new popular media examples from programs such as Breaking Bad, Duck Dynasty, and the podcast Serial.

• Chapter 5, “The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a So- cial Context,” has been reorganized into seven major sections instead of five, which should make the mate- rial clearer to students. We also revised the opening example, added a section on affective forecasting, re- organized some of the other sections (e.g., on culture and the self and on mindsets), added two new figures, and deleted or consolidated two other figures. Nearly 50 references to recent research have been added.

• Chapter 6, “The Need to Justify Our Actions,” now in- cludes a revised definition of cognitive dissonance and two dozen new references. These updates include stud- ies examining dissonance and cheating, hypocrisy and its consequences for self-justification, the justification of kindness in very young children, and a field study of jus- tification of effort among participants in a religious ritual in Mauritius.

• Chapter 7, “Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings,” includes some reorganization of section order in response to reviewer suggestions and an updated analysis of advertising, stereotypes, and culture. New Try It! exercises have also been added regarding the role of automatic thought processes in consumer-related attitudes.

• Chapter 8, “Conformity: Influencing Behavior,” now boasts a new section on tactics of social influence, in- cluding the foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face tech- nique. We have also added review of the Bond et al. (2012) election study in which the appearance of an “I Voted” button on Facebook was found to influence users’ own likelihood of voting. This chapter also dis- cusses the role of normative social influence in the polar plunge trend and the ALS ice bucket challenge that went viral on social media in 2014.

• Chapter 9, “Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups,” includes a new section on the relationship between group diversity, morale, and performance. The discussion of deindividuation has also been updated to consider the tendency as it is manifested in on-line contexts.

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xii preface

• Chapter 10, “Interpersonal Attraction: From First Im- pressions to Close Relationships,” has a new opening vignette focusing on Tinder and other dating-related apps/websites. We have expanded the treatment of fer- tility and attraction in response to reviewer feedback, and also added new research on the relationship be- tween genetic similarity and attraction.

• In Chapter 11, “Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help?” we substantially revised the sections on religion and prosocial behavior and on positive psychology. We now discuss recent research by van den Bos on appraisal and bystander intervention and recent media examples, such as a mention of the movie Kick Ass.

• Chapter 12, “Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other Peo- ple? Can We Prevent It?,” has undergone significant organizational changes across the entire chapter for clarity and narrative flow. The first section now uni- fies various answers to the question of the origins of aggression—evolutionary, cultural, learned, physi- ological influences—with special attention to gender and aggression (similarities as well as the familiar dif- ferences). We have also added a section, “Putting the Elements Together: The Case of Sexual Assault.” Here we not only updated the references but also added the latest studies about causes of rape and sexual assault; sexual scripts; and a 2015 review of research on sexual miscommunications.

• In Chapter 13, “Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures,” we have added more on the Implicit Associa- tion Test (IAT) as it relates to measuring implicit bias. The chapter also now includes more social neuroscience research on social categorization and expands its dis- cussion of the effects of prejudice on its targets. Several new glossary entries have been added to reflect these updates.

• Social Psychology in Action chapters—“Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Fu- ture,” “Social Psychology and Health,” and “Social Psychology and the Law”—have been updated with many references to new research, but remain shorter chapters. When we teach the course, we find that stu- dents are excited to learn about these applied areas. At the same time, we recognize that some instructors have difficulty fitting the chapters into their courses. As with the previous edition, our approach remains to maintain a shortened length for the applied chap- ters to make it easy to integrate these chapters into different parts of the course in whatever fashion an instructor deems best. SPA1, “Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future,” has a new opening example about the effects of climate change on U.S. cities and a new discussion of how experiences make people happier than material things. In SPA2, “Social Psychology and Health,” we revised the sections on perceived control, “tend and befriend” responses to stress, and behavioral causes of health problems. SPA3, “Social Psychology and Law,” has updated information on the role of post-identification feedback on eyewit- ness confidence and revised conclusions regarding the repressed memory debate.

REVEL™ Educational technology designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn When students are engaged deeply, they learn more effec- tively and perform better in their courses. This simple fact inspired the creation of REVEL: an immersive learning ex- perience designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and stu- dents nationwide, REVEL is the newest, fully digital way to deliver respected Pearson content.

REVEL enlivens course content with media interactives and assessments—integrated directly within the authors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students to read about and practice course material in tandem. This immer- sive educational technology boosts student engagement, which leads to better understanding of concepts and im- proved performance throughout the course.

We are proud to release the ninth edition of Social Psychol- ogy in REVEL. This version of the book includes integrated videos and media content throughout, allowing students to explore topics more deeply at the point of relevancy. All of the interactive content in REVEL was carefully written and designed by the authors themselves, ensuring that students will receive the most effective presentation of the content in each chapter. Videos were also carefully selected by the au- thor team, and several of them were filmed specifically for the ninth edition in REVEL.

REVEL also offers the ability for students to assess their content mastery by taking multiple-choice quizzes that of- fer instant feedback and by participating in a variety of writing assignments such as peer- reviewed questions and auto-graded assignments.

Learn More About REVEL http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/

Actor A

Actor B

ObserverB

ObserverA + B

ObserverA

ObserverB

ObserverA + B

ObserverA

This hands-on interactive helps students understand a well-known study on perceptual salience by giving them additional pop-up information when they click on a particular participant perspective.

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preface xiii

Teaching and Learning Resources A really good textbook should become part of the classroom experience, supporting and augmenting the professor’s vision for the class. Social Psychology offers a number of sup- plements that enrich both the professor’s presentation of social psychology and the students’ understanding of it.

MyPsychLab® • MyPsychLab (013401264X) combines proven learning

applications with powerful assessment to engage stu- dents, assess their learning, and help them succeed.

• An individualized study plan for each student, based on performance on chapter pre-tests, helps students focus on the specific topics where they need the most support. The personalized study plan arranges content from less complex thinking—like remembering and un- derstanding—to more complex critical-thinking skills— like applying and analyzing—and is based on Bloom’s taxonomy. Every level of the study plan provides a formative assessment quiz.

• Media assignments for each chapter—including videos with assignable questions—feed directly into the grade- book, enabling instructors to track student progress au- tomatically.

• The Pearson eText (0134012631) lets students access their textbook anytime and anywhere, and in any way they want, including listening online.

• Designed to help you develop and assess concept mas- tery and critical thinking, the Writing Space offers a single place to create, track, and grade writing assign- ments, provide resources, and exchange meaningful, personalized feedback with students, quickly and easily. Thanks to auto-graded, assisted-graded, and

create-your-own assignments, you decide your level of involvement in evaluating students’ work. The au- to-graded option allows you to assign writing in large classes without having to grade essays by hand. And because of integration with Turnitin®, Writing Space can check students’ work for improper citation or pla- giarism.

Instructor Resources We know that instructors are “tour guides” for their stu- dents, leading them through the exciting world of social psychology in the classroom. As such, we have invested tremendous effort in the creation of a world-class collection of instructor resources that will support professors in their mission to teach the best course possible.

For this edition, new coauthor Sam Sommers guided the creation of the supplements package. Here are the high- lights of the supplements we are pleased to provide:

PRESEnTATIOn TOOLS AnD CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES

• MyPsychLab Video Series for Social Psychology (0205847021) Current and cutting edge, the new MyPsychLab Video Series for social psychology features videos covering the most recent research, science, and applications. Watch clips from ABC’s wildly popular What Would You Do? series and discover how real peo- ple in real-world scenarios bring to life classic concepts in social psychology. The video series is also available to adopters on a DVD. Contact your Pearson representa- tive for more information.

• Social Psychology PowerPoint Collection (0134012348) The PowerPoints provide an active format for presenting concepts from each chapter and incorporating relevant figures and tables. Instructors can choose from three PowerPoint presentations: a lecture presentation set that

This edition of Social Psychology offers a variety of video types includ- ing interviews, as shown here with our lead author Elliot Aronson; news segments; and original lab experiment re-enactments directed by the authors and filmed at Tufts University.

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highlights major topics from the chapters, a highly visu- al lecture presentation set with embedded videos, or a PowerPoint collection of the complete art files from the text. The PowerPoint files can be downloaded from www .pearsonhighered.com.

• Instructor’s Resource Manual (0134012445) The In- structor’s Manual includes key terms, lecture ideas, teaching tips, suggested readings, chapter outlines, stu- dent projects and research assignments, Try It! exercises, critical thinking topics and discussion questions, and a media resource guide. It has been updated for the ninth edition with hyperlinks to ease facilitation of navigation within the IM.

ASSESSMEnT RESOuRCES

• Test Bank (0134012453) Each of the more than 2,000 questions in this test bank is page-referenced to the text and categorized by topic and skill level. Each question in the test bank was reviewed by several instructors to ensure that we are providing you with the best and most accurate content in the industry.

• MyTest Test Bank (0134012437) This Web-based test- generating software provides instructors “best in class” features in an easy-to-use program. Create tests and eas- ily select questions with drag-and-drop or point-and- click functionality. Add or modify test questions using the built-in Question Editor, and print tests in a vari- ety of formats. The program comes with full technical support.

LEARnIng CATALyTICS

• Learning Catalytics™ is an interactive, student-response tool that uses students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in more sophisticated tasks and think- ing. Now included with MyLab & with eText, Learning Catalytics enables you to generate classroom discussion, guide your lecture, and promote peer-to-peer learning with real-time analytics. Instructors, you can:

• Pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills.

• Monitor responses to find out where students are struggling.

• Use real-time data to adjust your instructional strat- egy and try other ways of engaging your students during class.

• Manage student interactions by automatically group- ing students for discussion, teamwork, and peer-to- peer learning.

Acknowledgments Elliot Aronson is delighted to acknowledge the collabora- tion of Carol Tavris in helping him update this edition. He would also like to acknowledge the contributions of his best friend (who also happens to be his wife of 60 years), Vera Aronson. Vera, as usual, provided inspiration for his ideas and acted as the sounding board for and supportive critic of many of his semiformed notions, helping to mold them into more-sensible analyses.

Tim Wilson would like to thank his graduate mentor, Richard E. Nisbett, who nurtured his interest in the field and showed him the continuity between social psychologi- cal research and everyday life. He also thanks the many stu- dents who have taken his course in social psychology over the years, for asking fascinating questions and providing wonderful examples of social psychological phenomena in their everyday lives. Lastly, he thanks the many graduate students with whom he has had the privilege of working for joining him in the ever-fascinating discovery of new so- cial psychological phenomena.

Robin Akert is beholden to Jonathan Cheek, Julie Don- nelly, Nan Vaida, Melody Tortosa, and Lila McCain for their feedback and advice, and to her family, Michaela and Wayne Akert, and Linda and Jerry Wuichet; their enthu- siasm and boundless support have sustained her on this project as on all the ones before it. Finally, she wishes to ex- press her gratitude to Dane Archer—mentor, colleague, and friend—who opened the world of social psychology to her and who has been her guide ever since.

Sam Sommers would like to acknowledge, first and foremost, the lovely Sommers ladies, Marilyn, Abigail, and Sophia, for being patient with round-the-clock revision ses- sions, for tolerating the constantly expanding mass of pa- pers and books on the floor of the study (he promises to clean them up before work starts on the tenth edition), and for frequently providing excellent real-life examples that illustrate social psychological concepts. He also gives spe- cial thanks to all of his teachers of social psychology, for in- troducing him to the field, for continued support, and for serving as role models as instructors, mentors, researchers, and writers.

No book can be written and published without the help of many people working with the authors behind the scenes, and our book is no exception. We would like to thank the many colleagues who read one or more chapters of this edition and of previous editions of the book.

Reviewers of the Ninth Edition Jim Allen, State University of New York, College at Geneseo; Kathryn Anderson, Our Lady of the Lake University; Anila Bhagavatula, California State University–Long Beach; Amy Bradshaw-Hoppock, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; Ngoc Bui, University of La Verne; Bernardo Carducci, Indiana Univer- sity Southeast; Alex Czopp, Western Washington University; Keith Davis, University of South Carolina; Michael Dudley, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville; Heidi English, College of the Siskiyous; Joe Ferrari, DePaul University; Christine Floether, Centenary College; Krista Forrest, University of Nebraska at Kearney; Allen Gorman, Radford University; Jerry Green, Tarrant County College; Dana Greene, University of North Carolina; Donnell Griffin, Davidson County Community College; Lisa Harrison, California State University, Sacramento; Gina Hoover, Ohio State University; Jeffrey Huntsinger, Loyola University Chicago; Alisha Janowsky, University of Central Florida; Bethany Johnson, University of Nebraska–Omaha; Deborah Jones, Columbia University; Suzanne Kieffer, University of Houston; Marvin Lee, Tennessee State Uni- versity; Alexandra Luong, University of Minnesota Duluth; Robyn Mallett, Loyola University Chicago; Brian Meier, Gettysburg College; Andrea Mercurio, Boston University; Lori Nelson, University of Iowa; Darren Petronella, Nassau Community Col- lege; Jennifer Rivers, Elms College; Kari Terzino, Des Moines Area

xiv preface

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Community College; T. Joel Wade, Bucknell University; Angela Walker, Quinnipiac University; Chrysalis Wright, University of Central Florida; Garry Zaslow, Nassau Community College; Jie Zhang, University at Buffalo

Reviewers of Past Editions Jeffrey B. Adams, Saint Michael’s College; Bill Adler, Collin County Community College; John R. Aiello, Rutgers University; Charles A. Alexander, Rock Valley College; Sowmya Anand, Ohio State University; Nathan Arbuckle, Ohio State University; Art Aron, State University of New York, Stony Brook; Danny Axsom, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Joan W. Baily, Jersey City State College; Norma Baker, Belmont Uni- versity; Austin Baldwin, University of Iowa; John Bargh, New York University; William A. Barnard, University of Northern Colorado; Doris G. Bazzini, Appalachian State University; Arthur Beaman, University of Kentucky; Gordon Bear, Ramapo College; Susan E. Beers, Sweet Briar College; Kathy L. Bell, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Leonard Berkowitz, University of Wisconsin–Madison; Ellen S. Berscheid, University of Minnesota; John Bickford, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; Thomas Blass, University of Maryland; C. George Boeree, Ship- pensburg University; Lisa M. Bohon, California State University, Sacramento; Jennifer Bosson, The University of Oklahoma; Chante C. Boyd, Carnegie Mellon University; Peter J. Brady, Clark State Community College; Kosha Bramesfeld, Pennsylva- nia State University; Kelly A. Brennan, University of Texas, Aus- tin; Richard W. Brislin, East-West Center of the University of Hawaii; Jeff Bryson, San Diego State University; Melissa Burkley, Oklahoma State University; Amy Bush, University of Houston; Amber Bush Amspoker, University of Houston; Brad Bushman, Iowa State University; Thomas P. Cafferty, University of South Carolina, Columbia; Melissa A. Cahoon, Wright State University; Frank Calabrese, Community College of Philadelphia; Michael Caruso, University of Toledo; Nicholas Christenfeld, University of California, San Diego; Margaret S. Clark, Carnegie Mellon University; Russell D. Clark, III, University of North Texas; Susan D. Clayton, Allegheny College; Megan Clegg-Kraynok, West Virginia University; Brian M. Cohen, University of Texas, San Antonio; Florette Cohen, Rutgers Uni- versity; Jack Cohen, Camden County College; Steven G. Cole, Texas Christian University; Eric J. Cooley, Western Oregon State University; Diana Cordova, Yale University; Traci Craig, Univer- sity of Idaho; Jack Croxton, State University of New York, Fredonia; Keith E. Davis, University of South Carolina, Columbia; Mary Ellen Dello Stritto, Ball State University; Dorothee Dietrich, Hamline University; Kate Dockery, University of Florida; Susann Doyle, Gainesville College; Steve Duck, University of Iowa; Michael G. Dudley, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville; Karen G. Duffy, State University of New York, Geneseo; Valerie Eastman, Drury College; Tami Eggleston, McKendree College; Timothy Elliot, University of Alabama–Birmingham; Steve L. Ellyson, Youngstown State University; Cindy Elrod, Georgia State University; Kadimah Elson, University of California, San Diego/Grossmont College; Rebecca S. Fahrlander, University of Nebraska at Omaha; Alan Feingold, Yale University; Edward Fernandes, East Carolina University; Phil Finney, Southeast Missouri State University; Susan Fiske, University of Massachu- setts; Robin Franck, Southwestern College; Denise Frank, Ramapo College of New Jersey; Timothy M. Franz, St. John Fisher College; William Rick Fry, Youngstown State University; Russell Geen, University of Missouri; Glenn Geher, State University of

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preface xv

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We also thank the wonderful editorial staff of Pearson for their expertise and professionalism, including Dickson Musslewhite (Editorial Director), Diane Szulecki (Program Manager), Lindsey Prudhomme Gill (Product Marketing Manager), Luke Robbins (Editorial Assistant), Christopher Fegan (Digital Product Manager), and Shelly Kupperman (Project Manager). We would especially like to thank Mary Piper Hansen (Developmental Editor), who provided ex- pert guidance with constant good cheer and insight even

through barrages of e-mail exchanges and attachments, and Amber Chow (Executive Editor), whose smart vision for the book, and commitment to making it as good as it can be, have truly made a difference. Finally, we thank Mary Falcon, but for whom we never would have begun this project.

Thank you for inviting us into your classroom. We wel- come your suggestions, and we would be delighted to hear your comments about this book.

xvi preface

Elliot Aronson elliot@cats.ucsc.edu

Tim Wilson tdw@virginia.edu

Robin Akert rakert@wellesley.edu

Sam Sommers sam.sommers@tufts.edu

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xvii

neat,” they said. “We broke a window and nobody cared!” My friend and I hopped onto our bikes to investigate. We had no trouble finding the house—there it was, sitting off by itself, with a big, jagged hole in a first-floor window. We got off of our bikes and looked around. My friend found a baseball-sized rock lying on the ground and threw a per- fect strike through another first-floor window. There was something exhilarating about the smash-and-tingle of shat- tering glass, especially when we knew there was nothing wrong with what we were doing. After all, the house was abandoned, wasn’t it? We broke nearly every window in the house and then climbed through one of the first-floor windows to look around.

It was then that we realized something was terribly wrong. The house certainly did not look abandoned. There were pictures on the wall, nice furniture, books in shelves. We went home feeling frightened and confused. We soon learned that the house was the home of an elderly couple who were away on vacation. Eventually, my parents dis- covered what we had done and paid a substantial sum to repair the windows. For years, I pondered this incident: Why did I do such a terrible thing? Was I a bad kid? I didn’t think so, and neither did my parents. How, then, could a good kid do such a bad thing? Even though the neighbor- hood kids said the house was abandoned, why couldn’t my friend and I see the clear signs that someone lived there? How crucial was it that my friend was there and threw the first rock? Although I didn’t know it at the time, these re- flections touched on several classic social psychological issues, such as whether only bad people do bad things, whether the social situation can be powerful enough to make good people do bad things, and the way in which our expectations about an event can make it difficult to see it as it really is. Fortunately, my career as a vandal ended with this one incident. It did, however, mark the beginning of my fascination with basic questions about how people understand themselves and the social world—questions I continue to investigate to this day.

Tim Wilson did his undergraduate work at Williams College and Hampshire College and received his PhD from the University of Michigan. Currently Sherrell J. Aston Professor of Psychology at the University of Virginia, he has published numerous articles in the areas of introspection, attitude change, self-knowledge, and affec- tive forecasting, as well as a recent book, Redirect: The Surprising New Science of Psychological Change. His research has received the support of the National Science Foundation and the National Institute for Mental Health. He has been elected twice to the Execu- tive Board of the Society for Experimental Social Psychology and is a Fellow in the American Psychological Society and the Society for Personality and Social Psychology. In 2009, he was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2015 he received the William James Fellows Award from the Association for Psycho- logical Science. Wilson has taught the Introduction to Social Psy- chology course at the University of Virginia for more than 30 years. In 2001 he was awarded the University of Virginia All-University Outstanding Teaching Award, and in 2010 was awarded the Uni- versity of Virginia Distinguished Scientist Award.

Elliot Aronson When I was a kid, we were the only Jewish family in a viru- lently anti-Semitic neighborhood. I had to go to Hebrew school every day, late in the afternoon. Being the only youngster in my neighborhood going to Hebrew school made me an easy target for some of the older neighborhood toughs. On my way home from Hebrew school, after dark, I was frequently way- laid and roughed up by roving gangs shouting anti-Semitic epithets.

I have a vivid memory of sitting on a curb after one of these beatings, nursing a bloody nose or a split lip, feel- ing very sorry for myself and wondering how these kids could hate me so much when they didn’t even know me. I thought about whether those kids were taught to hate Jews or whether, somehow, they were born that way. I wondered if their hatred could be changed—if they got to know me better, would they hate me less? I speculated about my own character. What would I have done if the shoe were on the other foot—that is, if I were bigger and stronger than they, would I be capable of beating them up for no good reason?

I didn’t realize it at the time, of course, but eventually I discovered that these were profound questions. And some 30 years later, as an experimental social psychologist, I had the great good fortune to be in a position to answer some of those questions and to invent techniques to reduce the kind of prejudice that had claimed me as a victim.

Elliot Aronson is Professor Emeritus at the University of Califor- nia at Santa Cruz and one of the most renowned social psychologists in the world. In 2002, he was chosen as one of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the twentieth century. Dr. Aronson is the only per- son in the 120-year history of the American Psychological Associa- tion to have received all three of its major awards: for distinguished writing, distinguished teaching, and distinguished research. Many other professional societies have honored his research and teaching as well. These include the American Association for the Advancement of Science, which gave him its highest honor, the Distinguished Scientific Research award; the American Council for the Advancement and Sup- port of Education, which named him Professor of the Year of 1989; the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, which awarded him the Gordon Allport prize for his contributions to the reduction of prejudice among racial and ethnic groups; and the William James Award from the Association for Psychological Science. In 1992, he was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. A col- lection of papers and tributes by his former students and colleagues, The Scientist and the Humanist, celebrates his contributions to social psychological theory and its application to real-world prob- lems. Dr. Aronson’s own recent books for general audiences include Mistakes Were Made (but not by ME), with Carol Tavris, and a memoir, Not by Chance Alone: My Life as a Social Psychologist.

Tim Wilson One day when I was 8, a couple of older kids rode up on their bikes to share some big news: They had discovered an abandoned house down a country road. “It’s really

About the Authors

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xviii About the Authors

Robin Akert One fall day when I was about 16, I was walking with a friend along the shore of the San Francisco Bay. Deep in conversa- tion, I glanced over my shoulder and saw a sailboat capsize. I pointed it out to my friend, who took only a perfunctory interest and went on talking. However, I kept watching as we walked, and I realized that the two sailors were in the water, clinging to the capsized boat. Again I said something to my friend, who replied, “Oh, they’ll get it upright—don’t worry.”

But I was worried. Was this an emergency? My friend didn’t think so. And I was no sailor; I knew nothing about boats. But I kept thinking, “That water is really cold. They can’t stay in that water too long.” I remember feeling very confused and unsure. What should I do? Should I do any- thing? Did they really need help?

We were near a restaurant with a big window overlook- ing the bay, and I decided to go in and see if anyone had done anything about the boat. Lots of people were watching but not doing anything. This confused me too. Meekly, I asked the bartender to call for some kind of help. He just shrugged. I went back to the window and watched the two small figures in the water. Why was everyone so unconcerned? Was I crazy?

Years later, I reflected on how hard it was for me to do what I did next: I demanded that the bartender let me use his phone. In those days before “911,” it was lucky that I knew there was a Coast Guard station on the bay, and I asked the operator for the number. I was relieved to hear the Guardsman take my message very seriously.

It had been an emergency. I watched as the Coast Guard cutter sped across the bay and pulled the two sailors out of the water. Maybe I saved their lives that day. What really stuck with me over the years was how other people behaved and how it made me feel. The other bystanders seemed un- concerned and did nothing to help. Their reactions made me doubt myself and made it harder for me to decide to take ac- tion. When I later studied social psychology in college, I re- alized that on the shore of the San Francisco Bay that day, I had experienced the “bystander effect” fully: The presence of other, apparently unconcerned bystanders had made it diffi- cult for me to decide if the situation was an emergency and whether it was my responsibility to help.

Robin Akert graduated summa cum laude from the University of California at Santa Cruz, where she majored in psychology and so- ciology. She received her PhD in experimental social psychology from Princeton University. She is currently a Professor of Psychology at Wellesley College, where she was awarded the Pinanski Prize for Ex- cellence in Teaching early in her career. She publishes primarily in the area of nonverbal communication, and recently received the AAUW American Fellowship in support of her research. She has taught the social psychology course at Wellesley College for nearly 30 years.

Sam Sommers I went to college to major in English. I only found myself in an Intro to Psychology course as a second-semester freshman because, well, it just seemed like the kind of thing you did as a second-semester freshman. It was when we got to the social psychology section of the course that a little voice in my head starting whispering something along the lines of, Hey, you’ve gotta admit this is pretty good stuff. It’s a lot like the conversations you have with your friends about daily life, but with scientific data.

As part of the class, we had the opportunity to partici- pate in research studies for course credit. So one day I found myself in an interaction study in which I was going to work on solving problems with a partner. I walked in and it was clear that the other guy had arrived earlier—his coat and bag were already hanging on the back of a chair. I was led to another, smaller room and shown a video of my soon-to-be partner. Then I was given a series of written questions about my perceptions of him, my expectations for our upcoming session together, and so forth. Finally, I walked back into the main area. The experimenter handed me a chair and told me to put it down anywhere next to my partner’s chair, and that she would go get him (he, too, was presumably completing written questionnaires in a private room).

So I did. I put my chair down, took a seat, and waited. Then the experimenter returned, but she was alone. She told me the study was over. There was no other participant; there would be no problem-solving in pairs. The video I had watched was of an actor, and in some versions of the study he mentioned having a girlfriend. In other versions, he mentioned a boyfriend. What the researchers were actually studying was how this social category information of sexual orientation would influence participants’ attitudes about the interaction.

And then she took out a tape measure. The tape measure was to gauge how close to my part-

ner’s chair I had placed my own chair, the hypothesis being that discomfort with a gay partner might manifest in terms of participants placing their chairs farther away. Greater comfort with or affinity for the partner was predicted to lead to more desire for proximity.

And at that, I was hooked. The little voice in my head had grown from a whisper to a full-throated yell that this was a field I could get excited about. First of all, the researchers had tricked me. That, alone, I thought was, for lack of a better word, cool. But more important, they had done so in the ef- fort to get me and my fellow participants to reveal something about our attitudes, preferences, and tendencies that we never would have admitted to (or perhaps even would have been aware of) had they just asked us directly. Here was a fasci- natingly creative research design, being used in the effort to study what struck me as an incredibly important social issue.

Like I said, I was hooked. And I look forward to help- ing to introduce you to this field that caught me by surprise back when I was a student and continues to intrigue and inspire me to this day.

Sam Sommers earned his BA from Williams College and his PhD from the University of Michigan. Since 2003 he has been a fac- ulty member in the Department of Psychology at Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts. His research examines issues related to stereotyping, prejudice, and group diversity, with a particular inter- est in how these processes play out in the legal domain. He has won multiple teaching awards at Tufts, including the Lerman-Neubauer Prize for Outstanding Teaching and Advising and the Gerald R. Gill Professor of the Year Award. He was also inducted into the Tufts Hall of Diversity for his efforts to promote an inclusive climate on campus for all students. He has testified as an expert witness on issues related to racial bias, jury decision-making, and eyewit- ness memory in criminal trial proceedings in seven states. His first general audience book on social psychology was published in 2011, titled Situations Matter: Understanding How Context Transforms Your World. His next book, titled Your Brain on Sports, is coauthored with L. Jon Wertheim of Sports Illustrated and will be published in early 2016.

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xix

Just Say No to the Couch Potato Within Because social psychology is about everyday life, you might lull yourself into believing that the material is all common sense. Don’t be fooled. The material presented in this book is more complicated than it might seem. Therefore, we want to emphasize that the best way to learn it is to work with it in an active, not passive, fashion. You can’t just read a chapter once and expect it to stick with you. You have to go over the material, wrestle with it, make your own con- nections to it, question it, think about it, interact with it. Actively working with material makes it memorable and makes it your own. Because it’s a safe bet that someone is going to ask you about this material later and you’re going to have to pull it out of memory, do what you can to get it into memory now. Here are some techniques to use:

• Go ahead and be bold—use a highlighter! If you high- light important points using the highlighting tool in your toolbar, you will remember those important points better and can scroll back through them later.

• Read the chapter before the applicable class lecture, not afterward. This way, you’ll get more out of the lecture, which will likely introduce new material in addition to what is in the chapter. The chapter will give you the big picture, as well as a lot of detail. The lecture will en- hance that information and help you put it all together. If you haven’t read the chapter first, you may not under- stand some of the points made in the lecture or realize which points are most important.

• Here’s a good way to study material: Write out a key concept or a study in your own words, without looking at the book or your notes. Or say it out loud to your- self—again in your own words, with your eyes closed. Can you do it? How good was your version? Did you omit anything important? Did you get stuck at some point, unable to remember what comes next? If so, you now know that you need to go over that information in more detail. You can also study with someone else, describing theories and studies to each other and seeing if you’re making sense.

• If you have trouble remembering the results of an im- portant study, try drawing your own version of a graph of the findings (you can use our data graphs for an idea of how to proceed). You will probably find that you remember the research results much better in pictorial form than in words. Draw the information a few times and it will stay with you.

• Remember, the more you work with the material, the better you will learn and remember it. Write it in your own words, talk about it, explain it to others, or draw visual representations of it.

“There is then creative reading as well as creative writing,” said Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1837, and that aptly sums up what you need to know to be a proficient student: Be an active, creative consumer of information. How do you accomplish that feat? Actu- ally, it’s not difficult. Like everything else in life, it just takes some work—some clever, well-planned, purposeful work. Here are some suggestions about how to do it.

Get to Know the Textbook Believe it or not, in writing this book, we thought care- fully about the organization and structure of each chapter. Things are presented as they are for a reason, and that rea- son is to help you learn the material in the best way possi- ble. Here are some tips on what to look for in each chapter.

Key terms are in boldface type in the text so that you’ll notice them. We define the terms in the text, and that definition appears again in the margin. These marginal def- initions are there to help you out if later in the chapter you forget what something means. The marginal definitions are quick and easy to find. You can also look up key terms in the alphabetical Glossary at the end of this textbook.

Make sure you notice the headings and subheadings. The headings are the skeleton that holds a chapter together. They link together like vertebrae. If you ever feel lost, look back to the previous heading and the headings before it— this will give you the “big picture” of where the chapter is going. It should also help you see the connections between sections.

The summary at the end of each chapter is a succinct shorthand presentation of the chapter information. You should read it and make sure there are no surprises when you do so. If anything in the summary doesn’t ring a bell, go back to the chapter and reread that section. Most im- portant, remember that the summary is intentionally brief, whereas your understanding of the material should be full and complete. Use the summary as a study aid before your exams. When you read it over, everything should be familiar. When you have that wonderful feeling of know- ing more than is in the summary, you’ll know that you are ready to take the exam.

Be sure to do the Try It! exercises. They will make concepts from social psychology concrete and help you see how they can be applied to your own life. Some of the Try It! exercises replicate social psychology experiments. Oth- ers reproduce self-report scales so you can see where you stand in relation to other people. Still others are short quiz- zes that illustrate social psychological concepts.

Watch the videos. Our carefully curated collection of interviews, news clips, and research study reenactments is designed to enhance, and help you better understand, the concepts you’re reading. If you can see the concept in ac- tion, it’s likely to sink in a little deeper.

Special Tips for Students

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• Last but not least, remember that this material is a lot of fun. You haven’t even started reading the book yet, but we think you’re going to like it. In particular, you’ll see how much social psychology has to tell you about your real, everyday life. As this course progresses, you might want to remind yourself to observe the events of your daily life with new eyes—the eyes of a social psychologist— and try to apply what you are learning to the behavior of friends, acquaintances, strangers, and, yes, even yourself. Make sure you use the Try It! exercises and visit the Web site. You will find out how much social psychology can help us understand our lives. When you read the news, think about what social psychology has to say about cur- rent events and behaviors; we believe you will find that your understanding of daily life is richer. If you notice a

news article that you think is an especially good example of “social psychology in action,” please send it to us, with a full reference to where you found it and on what page. If we decide to use it in the next edition of this book, we’ll list your name in the Acknowledgments.

We realize that ten years from now you may not re- member all the facts, theories, and names you learn now. Although we hope you will remember some of them, our main goal is for you to take with you into your future a great many of the broad social psychological concepts pre- sented herein—and, perhaps more important, a critical and scientific way of thinking. If you open yourself to social psychology’s magic, we believe it will enrich the way you look at the world and the way you live in it.

xx Special Tips for Students

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Chapter 1

Introducing Social Psychology

Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives

Defining Social Psychology 1.1 What is social psychology, and how is it different

from other disciplines?

Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common Sense

How Social Psychology Differs from Its Closest Cousins

The Power of the Situation 1.2 Why does it matter how people explain and interpret

events—and their own and others’ behavior?

The Importance of Explanation The Importance of Interpretation

Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives 1.3 What happens when people’s need to feel good about

themselves conflicts with their need to be accurate?

The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About Ourselves

The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate

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2 Chapter 1

It is a pleasure to be your tour guides as we take you on a journey through the world of social psychology. The four authors of your book, combined, have taught this course for almost 100 years, so we know the terrain pretty well. As we embark on this journey, our hope is to convey our excitement about social psychology—what it is and why it matters. Not only do we enjoy teaching this stuff, we also love contributing to the growth and development of this field—for, in addition to being teachers, each of us is a scientist who has contributed to the knowledge base that makes up our dis- cipline. In effect, not only are we leading this tour, we also helped create some of its major attractions. We will travel to fascinating and exotic places like prejudice, love, propaganda, education, the law, aggression, compassion, . . . all the rich variety and surprise of human social life. Ready? OK, let’s go!

Let’s begin with a few examples of the heroic, touching, tragic, and puzzling things that people do:

• After two brothers set off a bomb at the finish line of the Boston Marathon in 2013, killing three people and severely injuring 170 others, citizens of Boston raced to the rescue. Many, in spite of the risk to themselves, ran straight to the site of the bombing to help the injured, putting tourniquets on bleeding wounds until ambu- lances could arrive. “We’re a strong city,” said the mayor. “Boston will overcome.”

• Kristen has known Martin for 2 months and feels that she is madly in love with him. “We’re soul mates!” she tells her best friend. “He’s the one!” “What are you thinking?” says the BF. “He’s completely wrong for you! He’s as different from you as can be—different background, religion, politics; you even like different movies.” “I’m not worried,” says Kristen. “Opposites attract. I know that’s true; I read it on Wikipedia!”

• Janine and her brother Oscar are arguing about fraternities. Janine’s college didn’t have any, but Oscar is at a large state university in the Midwest, where he has joined Alpha Beta. He went through a severe and scary hazing ritual to join, and Janine cannot understand why he loves these guys so much. “They make the pledges do such stupid stuff,” she says. “They humiliate you and force you to get sick drunk and practically freeze to death in the middle of the night. How can you possibly be happy living there?” “You don’t get it,” Oscar replies. “Alpha Beta is the best of all fraternities. My frat brothers just seem more fun than most other guys.”

• Abraham Biggs Jr., age 19, had been posting to an online discussion board for 2 years. Unhappy about his future and that a relationship had ended, Biggs an- nounced on camera that he was going to commit suicide. He took an overdose of drugs and linked to a live video feed from his bedroom. None of his hundreds of observers called the police for more than 10 hours; some egged him on. Paramed- ics reached him too late, and Biggs died.

• In the mid-1970s, several hundred members of the Peoples Temple, a California-based religious cult, immigrated to Guyana under the guidance of their leader, the Reverend Jim Jones, where they founded an interracial commu- nity called Jonestown. But within a few years some members wanted out, an out- side investigation was about to get Jones in trouble, and the group’s solidarity was waning. Jones grew despondent and, summoning everyone in the commu- nity, spoke to them about the beauty of dying and the certainty that everyone would meet again in another place. The residents willingly lined up in front of a vat containing a mixture of Kool-Aid and cyanide, and drank the lethal concoc- tion. (The legacy of this massacre is the term “drinking the Kool-Aid,” referring to a person’s blind belief in an ideology that could lead to death.) A total of 914 people died, including 80 babies and the Reverend Jones.

Why do many people rush into danger and discomfort to help strangers in trou- ble? Is Kristen right that opposites attract or is she just kidding herself? Why did Oscar

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Introducing Social Psychology 3

come to love his fraternity brothers in spite of the hazing they had put him through? Why would people watch a troubled young man commit suicide in front of their eyes, when, by simply flagging the video to alert the Web site, they might have averted a tragedy? How could hundreds of people be induced to kill their own children and then commit suicide?

All of these stories—the good, the bad, the ugly—pose fascinating questions about human behavior. In this book, we will show you how social psychologists go about answering them.

Defining Social Psychology 1.1 What is social psychology, and how is it different from other disciplines?

The task of the psychologist is to try to understand and predict human behavior. Different kinds of psychologists go about this task in different ways, and we want to show you how social psychologists do it. Social psychology is the scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people: parents, friends, employers, teachers, strangers—indeed, by the entire social situation (Allport, 1985). When we think of social influence, the kinds of examples that readily come to mind are direct attempts at persuasion, whereby one person deliberately tries to change another person’s behav- ior or attitude. This is what happens when advertisers use sophisticated techniques to persuade us to buy a particular brand of toothpaste, or when our friends try to get us to do something we don’t really want to do (“Come on, have another beer—everyone is doing it”), or when the schoolyard bully uses force or threats to get smaller kids to part with their lunch money.

The study of direct attempts at social influence is a major part of social psychol- ogy and will be discussed in our chapters on conformity, attitudes, and group pro- cesses. To the social psychologist, however, social influence is broader than attempts by one person to change another person’s behavior. It includes our thoughts and feel- ings as well as our overt acts, and takes many forms other than deliberate attempts at persuasion. We are often influenced merely by the presence of other people, including perfect strangers who are not interacting with us. Other people don’t even have to be present: We are governed by the imaginary approval or disapproval of our par- ents, friends, and teachers and by how we expect others to react to us. Sometimes these influences conflict with one another, and social psychologists are especially interested in what happens in the mind of an individual when they do. For example, conflicts frequently occur when young people go off to college and find themselves torn between the beliefs and values they learned at home and the beliefs and values of their professors or peers. (See the Try It!)

Social Psychology The scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people

Social Influence The effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior

Try IT! How Do Other People Affect Your Values? Think of the major values that govern people’s lives: love, money, sex, religion, freedom, compassion for others, security, children, duty, loyalty, and so on. Make three lists of the 10 values that are most important to (1) you, (2) your parents, and (3) your closest friends in college. If there are

differences in your lists, how do they affect you? Are some of your values conflicting with those of your parents or friends, and if so do you find yourself rejecting one set of values in favor of the other? Are you trying to find a compromise between the two?

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4 Chapter 1

We will spend the rest of this introductory chapter expanding on these issues, so that you will get an idea of what social psychology is, what it isn’t, and how it differs from other, related disciplines.

Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common Sense Throughout history, philosophy has been a major source of insight about human nature. Indeed, the work of philosophers is part of the foundation of contempo- rary psychology. Psychologists have looked to philosophers for insights into the nature of consciousness (e.g., Dennett, 1991) and how people form beliefs about the social world (e.g., Gilbert, 1991). Sometimes, however, even great thinkers find themselves in disagreement with one another. When this occurs, how are you sup- posed to know who is right? Are there some situations where Philosopher A might be right, and other situations where Philosopher B might be right? How would you determine this?

We social psychologists address many of the same questions that philosophers do, but we attempt to look at these questions scientifically—even questions concern- ing that great human mystery, love. In 1663, the Dutch philosopher Benedict Spinoza offered a highly original insight. In sharp disagreement with the hedonistic philoso- pher Aristippus, he proposed that if we fall in love with someone whom we formerly

Our thoughts, feelings, and actions are influenced by our immediate surroundings, including the presence of other people—even mere strangers.

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Introducing Social Psychology 5

hated, that love will be stronger than if hatred had not preceded it. Spinoza’s prop- osition was beautifully worked out, with impeccable logic. But how can we be sure that it holds up? Does it always hold up? What are the conditions under which it does or doesn’t? These are empirical questions, meaning that their answers can be derived from experimentation or measurement rather than by personal opinion (Aronson, 1999; Aronson & Linder, 1965).

Now let’s take another look at the examples that opened this chapter. Why did these people behave the way they did? One way to answer would simply be to ask them. We could ask the people who observed Abraham Biggs’s suicide why they didn’t call the police; we could ask Oscar why he enjoys fraternity life; we could ask the Boston rescuers why they ran headlong into a potentially dangerous situation. The problem with this approach is that people are often unaware of the reasons behind their own responses and feelings (Gilbert, 2008; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977; Wilson, 2002). People might come up with plenty of justifications for not call- ing the police to rescue Biggs, but those justifications might not be the reason they did nothing.

After the mass suicide at Jonestown, everyone had an explanation:

• Jones used hypnotism and drugs to weaken the resistance of his followers.

• Jones attracted people who were already clinically depressed.

• Only mentally ill or emotionally disturbed people join cults.

These were the leading “common sense” answers, but they are mistaken. More- over, if we rely on commonsense explanations of one particular tragic event, we don’t learn much that helps us understand other, similar ones.

Thus, in explaining a tragedy like Jonestown—or any other topic of interest— social psychologists would want to know which of many possible explanations is the most likely. To do this, we have devised an array of scientific methods to test our assumptions, guesses, and ideas about human social behavior, empirically and sys- tematically rather than by relying on folk wisdom, common sense, or the opinions and insights of philosophers, novelists, political pundits, and our grandmothers. Doing

British soldiers stand near burning vehicles in Kabul, Afghanistan, after a suicide car bomber killed soldiers on a NATO-led peacekeeping mission. What causes a person to become a suicide bomber? Popular theories say such people must be mentally ill, alienated loners, or psychopaths. But social psychologists would try to understand the circumstances and situations that drive otherwise healthy, well-educated, bright people to commit murder and suicide for the sake of a religious or political goal.

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6 Chapter 1

experiments in social psychology presents many challenges, primarily because we are attempting to predict the behavior of highly sophisticated organisms in complex situations. As scientists, our goal is to find objective answers to such questions as: What are the factors that cause aggression? What causes prejudice, and how might we reduce it? What variables cause two people to like or love each other? Why do certain kinds of political advertisements work better than others?

To answer questions like these, the first task of the social psychologist is to make an educated guess, called a hypothesis, about the specific situations under which one outcome or the other would occur. Just as a physicist performs experiments to test hypotheses about the nature of the physical world, the social psychologist performs experiments to test hypotheses about the nature of the social world. The next task is to design well-controlled experiments sophisticated enough to tease out the situ- ations that would result in one or another outcome. This method allows us to make accurate predictions once we know the key aspects of the prevailing situation. (See Chapter 2.)

Social psychologists are not opposed to folk wisdom—far from it. The primary problem with relying entirely on such sources is that, like philosopher A and phi- losopher B, they often disagree with one another. Consider what folk wisdom has to say about the factors that influence how much we like other people. We know that “birds of a feather flock together.” Of course, we say, thinking of the many examples of our pleasure in hanging out with people who share our backgrounds and interests. But folk wisdom also tells us—as it persuaded lovestruck Kristen—that “opposites attract.” Of course, we say, thinking of all the times we were attracted to people with different backgrounds and interests. Well, which is it? Similarly, are we to believe that “out of sight is out of mind” or that “absence makes the heart grow fonder”?

Social psychologists would suggest that there are some conditions under which birds of a feather do flock together, and other conditions under which opposites do attract. Similarly, in some conditions absence does make the heart grow fonder, and in others “out of sight” does mean out of mind. But it’s not enough to say both proverbs can be true. Part of the job of the social psychologist is to do the research that specifies the conditions under which one or another is most likely to take place.

How Social Psychology Differs from Its Closest Cousins If you are like most people, when you read the examples that opened this chapter, you assumed that the individuals involved had some weaknesses, strengths, and personality traits that led them to respond as they did. Some people are leaders and others are followers; some people are public-spirited and others are selfish; some are brave and others are cowardly. Perhaps the people who failed to get help for Abraham Biggs were lazy, timid, selfish, or heartless. Given what you know about their behavior, would you loan them your car or trust them to take care of your new puppy?

Asking and trying to answer questions about people’s behavior in terms of their traits is the work of personality psychologists, who generally focus on individual dif- ferences, the aspects of people’s personalities that make them different from others. Research on personality increases our understanding of human behavior, but social psychologists believe that explaining behavior primarily through personality traits ignores a critical part of the story: the powerful role played by social influence.

Consider again the tragedy at Jonestown. Remember that it was not just a handful of people who committed suicide there, but almost 100 percent of them. It is highly improbable that they were all mentally ill or had the same constellation of person- ality traits. If we want a richer, more thorough explanation of this tragic event, we need to understand what kind of power and influence a charismatic figure like Jim

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Introducing Social Psychology 7

Jones possessed, the nature of the impact of living in a closed society cut off from other points of view, and other factors that could have caused mentally healthy peo- ple to obey him. In fact, as social psychologists have shown, the social conditions at Jonestown were such that virtually anyone—even strong, nondepressed individuals like you or us—would have succumbed to Jones’s influence.

Here is a more mundane example. Suppose you go to a party and see a great-look- ing fellow student you have been hoping to get to know better. The student is look- ing pretty uncomfortable, however—standing alone, not making eye contact, not talking to anyone who comes over. You decide you’re not so interested; this person seems pretty aloof, even arrogant. But a few weeks later you see the student again, now being outgoing, witty, and appealing. So what is this person “really” like? Shy or arrogant, charming and welcoming? It’s the wrong question; the answer is both and neither. All of us are capable of being shy in some situations and outgoing in others. A much more interesting question is: What factors were different in these two situations that had such a profound effect on the student’s behavior? That is a social psychologi- cal question. (See the Try It!)

Personality psychologists study qualities of the individual that might make a person shy, conventional, rebellious, and willing to wear a turquoise wig in public or a yellow shirt in a sea of blue. Social psychologists study the powerful role of social influence on how all of us behave.

Try IT! Social Situations and Shyness 1. Think about one of your friends or acquaintances whom you

regard as shy. (You may use yourself!) Try not to think about him or her as “a shy person,” but rather as someone who has difficulty relating to people in some situations but not others.

2. List the situations you think are most likely to bring out your friend’s shy behavior.

3. List the situations that might bring forth more outgoing behaviors on your friend’s part. Being with a small group of friends he or she is at ease with? Being with a new person, but one who shares your friend’s interests?

4. Set up a social environment that you think would make your friend comfortable. Pay close attention to the effect that it has on your friend’s behavior—or yours.

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Social psychology is related to other disciplines in the social sciences, includ- ing sociology, economics, and political science. Each examines the influence of social factors on human behavior, but important differences set social psychology apart—most notably in their level of analysis. For biologists, the level of analy- sis might be genes, hormones, or neurotransmitters. For personality and clinical psychologists, the level of the analysis is the individual. For the social psychologist, the level of analysis is the individual in the context of a social situation. For example, to understand why people intentionally hurt one another, the social psycholo- gist focuses on the psychological processes that trigger aggression in specific sit- uations. To what extent is aggression preceded by frustration? Does frustration always precede aggression? If people are feeling frustrated, under what condi- tions will they vent their frustration with an aggressive act and under what con- ditions will they restrain themselves? What are other causes of aggression? (See Chapter 12.)

Other social sciences are more concerned with social, economic, political, and historical factors that influence events. Sociology, rather than focusing on the indi- vidual, focuses on such topics as social class, social structure, and social institu- tions. Of course, because society is made up of collections of people, some overlap is bound to exist between the domains of sociology and those of social psychology. The major difference is that in sociology, the level of analysis is the group, institution, or society at large. So while sociologists, like social psychologists, are interested in causes of aggression, sociologists are more likely to be concerned with why a par- ticular society (or group within a society) produces different levels of violence in its members. Why is the murder rate in the United States so much higher than in Canada or Europe? Within the United States, why is the murder rate higher in some geographic regions than in others? How do changes in society relate to changes in aggressive behavior?

Social psychology differs from other social sciences not only in the level of analysis, but also in what is being explained. The goal of social psychology is to iden- tify properties of human nature that make almost everyone susceptible to social inf luence, regardless of social class or culture. The laws governing the relationship between frustration and aggression, for example, are hypothesized to be true of most peo- ple in most places, not just members of one gender, social class, culture, age group, or ethnicity.

However, because social psychology is a young science that developed mostly in the United States, many of its findings have not yet been tested in other cultures to see if they are universal. None- theless, our goal is to discover such laws. And increas- ingly, as methods and theories developed by American social psychologists are adopted by European, Asian, Afri- can, Middle Eastern, and South American social psychol- ogists, we are learning more about the extent to which these laws are universal, as well as cultural differences in the way these laws are expressed (see Chapter 2). Cross- cultural research is therefore extremely valuable, because it sharpens theories, either by demonstrating their universality or by leading us to discover additional variables that help us improve our understanding and prediction of human behav- ior. We will offer many examples of cross-cultural research in this book.

In sum, social psychology is located between its closest cousins, sociology and personality psychology (see Table 1.1). Social psychology and sociology share an interest in the way the situation and the larger society

The people in this photo can be studied from a variety of perspectives: as individuals or as members of a family, a social class, an occupation, a culture, or a region. Sociologists study the group or institution; social psychologists study the influence of those groups and institutions on individual behavior.

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Introducing Social Psychology 9

influence behavior. Social psychology and personality psychology share an inter- est in the psychology of the individual. But social psychologists work in the over- lap between those two disciplines: They emphasize the psychological processes shared by most people around the world that make them susceptible to social influence.

Table 1.1 Social Psychology Compared to Related Disciplines

Sociology Social Psychology Personality Psychology

The study of groups, organizations, and societies, rather than individuals.

The study of the psychological processes people have in common that make them susceptible to social influence.

The study of the characteristics that make individuals unique and different from one another.

revIew QueSTIonS 1. A social psychologist would tend to look for explanations of a

young man’s violent behavior primarily in terms of: a. his aggressive personality traits. b. possible genetic contributions. c. how his peer group behaves. d. what his father taught him.

2. The topic that would most interest a social psychologist is a. how the level of extroversion of different presidents

affected their political decisions. b. whether people’s decision about whether to cheat on

a test is influenced by how they imagine their friends would react if they found out.

c. the extent to which people’s social class predicts their income.

d. what passers-by on the street think of global warming.

3. How does social psychology differ from personality psychology? a. Social psychology focuses on individual differences,

whereas personality psychology focuses on how people behave in different situations.

b. Social psychology focuses on the shared processes that make people susceptible to social influence, whereas personality psychology focuses on individual differences.

c. Social psychology provides general laws and theories about societies, whereas personality psychology stud- ies the characteristics that make people unique.

d. Social psychology focuses on individual differences, whereas personality psychology provides general laws and theories about societies.

4. What is the “level of analysis” for a social psychologist? a. The individual in the context of a social situation. b. The social situation itself. c. A person’s level of achievement. d. A person’s level of reasoning.

5. Which of the following research topics about violence is one that a social psychologist might investigate? a. How rates of violence change over time within a culture. b. Why murder rates vary across cultures. c. Brain abnormalities that produce aggression when a

person is provoked. d. Why some situations are more likely to provoke aggres-

sion than others.

See page AK-1 for the answers.

The Power of the Situation 1.2 Why does it matter how people explain and interpret events—and their own

and others’ behavior?

Suppose you stop at a roadside restaurant for a cup of coffee and a piece of pie. The server comes over to take your order, but you are having a hard time deciding which pie you want. While you are hesitating, she impatiently taps her pen against her note- pad, rolls her eyes toward the ceiling, scowls at you, and finally snaps, “Hey, I haven’t got all day, you know!” Like most people, you would probably think that she is a nasty or unpleasant person.

But suppose, while you are deciding whether to complain about her to the man- ager, a regular customer tells you that your “crabby” server is a single parent who

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was kept awake all night by the moaning of her youngest child, who was terribly sick; that her car broke down on her way to work and she has no idea where she will find the money to have it repaired; that when she finally arrived at the restaurant, she learned that her coworker was too drunk to work, requiring her to cover twice the usual number of tables; and that the short-order cook keeps screaming at her because she is not picking up the orders fast enough to please him. Given all that information, you might now conclude that she is not a nasty person but an ordinary human under enormous stress.

This small story has huge implications. Most Americans will explain someone’s behavior in terms of personality; they focus on the fish, and not the water the fish swims in. The fact that they fail to take the situation into account has a profound impact on how human beings relate to one another—such as, in the case of the server, whether they feel sympathy and tolerance or impatience and anger.

The Importance of Explanation Thus, the social psychologist is up against a formidable barrier known as the fundamental attribution error: the tendency to explain our own and other people’s behavior entirely in terms of personality traits and to underestimate the power of social influence and the immediate situation. We are going to give you the basics of this phenomenon here, because you will be encountering it throughout this book. Understanding that people’s behavior is often not caused by their personalities but by the situations they are in is central to social psychology.

Explaining behavior in terms of personality can give us a feeling of false security. When people try to explain repugnant or bizarre behavior, such as suicide bombers or the people of Jonestown taking their own lives and killing their own children, they find it tempting and, in a strange way, comforting to write off the victims as flawed human beings. Doing so gives them the feeling that it could never happen to them. Ironically, this way of thinking actually increases our vulnerability to destructive social influences by making us less aware of our own susceptibility to them. More- over, by failing to fully appreciate the power of the situation, we tend to oversimplify the problem, which can lead us to blame the victim in situations where the individ- ual was overpowered by social forces too difficult for most of us to resist, as in the Jonestown tragedy.

To take a more everyday example, imagine a situation in which two people are playing a game and they must choose one of two strategies: They can play competi- tively and try to win as much money as possible and make sure their partner loses as much as possible, or they can play cooperatively and try to make sure they both win some money. How do you think each of your friends would play this game?

Few people find this question hard to answer; we all have a feeling for the rel- ative competitiveness of our friends. Accordingly, you might say, “I am certain that my friend Jennifer, who is a hard-nosed business major, would play this game more competitively than my friend Anna, who is a soft-hearted, generous person.” But how accurate are you likely to be? Should you be thinking about the game itself rather than who is playing it?

To find out, Lee Ross and his students conducted the following experiment ( Liberman, Samuels, & Ross, 2004). They described the game to resident assis- tants (RAs) in a student dorm and asked them to come up with a list of undergrads whom they thought were either especially cooperative or especially competitive. As expected, the RAs easily identified students who fit each category. Next, Ross invited these students to play the game in a psychology experiment. There was one added twist: The researchers varied a seemingly minor aspect of the social situation—what the game was called. They told half the participants that they would be playing the

Fundamental Attribution Error The tendency to overestimate the extent to which people’s behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors

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Introducing Social Psychology 11

Wall Street Game and the other half that they would be playing the Community Game. Everything else about the game was identical. Thus, people who were judged as either competitive or cooperative played a game that was called either the Wall Street Game or the Community Game, resulting in four conditions: cooperative peo- ple playing the Wall Street Game, cooperative people playing the Community Game, competitive people playing the Wall Street Game, or competitive people playing the Community Game.

Again, most of us go through life assuming that what really counts is an individu- al’s personality, not something about the individual’s immediate situation and certainly not something as trivial as what a game is called, right? Not so fast! As you can see in Figure 1.1, the name of the game made a tremendous difference in how people behaved. When it was called the Wall Street Game, approximately two-thirds of the students responded competitively; when it was called the Community Game, only a third responded competitively. The name of the game sent a powerful message about how the players should behave. But a student’s alleged personality trait made no measurable dif- ference in the student’s behavior. The students labeled competitive were no more likely to adopt the competitive strategy than those who were labeled cooperative. We will see this pattern of results throughout this book: Aspects of the social situation that may seem minor can overwhelm the differences in people’s personalities (Ross & Ward, 1996).

If merely assigning a name to the game has an important impact on the behavior of the players, what do you think the impact would be of changing the atmosphere of the classroom to reflect the nature of the game being played? Suppose you are a seventh-grade history teacher. In one of your classes, you structure the learning expe- rience so that it resembles the situation implied by the term “Wall Street Game.” You encourage competition, you tell your students to raise their hands as quickly as pos- sible and to jeer at any incorrect answers given by other students. In your other class, you structure the learning situation such that the students are rewarded for cooper- ating with one another, for listening well, for encouraging one another and pulling together to learn the material. What do you suppose the effect these different situa- tions might have on the performance of your students, on their enjoyment of school, and on their feelings about one another? Such an experiment will be discussed in Chapters 12 and 13 (Aronson & Patnoe, 2011).

Wall Street GameCommunity Game

“Cooperative” people

“Competitive” people

P er

ce nt

ag e

of p

eo pl

e ch

oo si

ng c

oo pe

ra ti

ve s

tr at

eg y

Figure 1.1 Why the Name of the Game Matters In this experiment, when the name of the game was the “Community Game,” players were far more likely to behave cooperatively than when it was called the “Wall Street Game”—regardless of their own cooperative or competitive personality traits. The game’s title conveyed social norms that trumped personality and shaped the players’ behavior.

(Data from Liberman, Samuels, & Ross, 2004)

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Of course personality differences do exist and frequently are of great importance, but social and environmental situations are so powerful that they have dramatic effects on almost everyone. This is the domain of the social psychologist.

The Importance of Interpretation It is one thing to say that the social situation has profound effects on human behav- ior, but what exactly do we mean by the social situation? One strategy for defining it would be to specify the objective properties of the situation, such as how reward- ing it is to people, and then document the behaviors that follow from these objective properties.

This is the approach taken by behaviorism, a school of psychology maintaining that to understand human behavior, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment: When behavior is followed by a reward (such as money, attention, praise, or other benefits), it is likely to continue; when behavior is followed by a pun- ishment (such as pain, loss, or angry shouts), it is likely to become extinguished. Dogs come when they are called because they have learned that compliance is followed by positive reinforcement (e.g., food or petting); children memorize their multiplication tables more quickly if you praise them, smile at them, and paste a gold star on their foreheads following correct answers. Behavioral psychologists, notably the pioneer- ing behaviorist B. F. Skinner (1938), believed that all behavior could be understood by examining the rewards and punishments in the organism’s environment.

Behaviorism has many strengths, and its principles explain some behavior very well. (See Chapter 10.) However, because the early behaviorists did not concern them- selves with cognition, thinking, and feeling—concepts they considered too vague and mentalistic and not sufficiently anchored to observable behavior—they overlooked phenomena that are vital to the human social experience. Most especially, they over- looked the importance of how people interpret their environments.

For social psychologists, the relationship between the social environment and the individual is a two-way street. Not only does the situation influence people’s behav- ior; people’s behavior also depends on their interpretation, or construal, of their social environment (Griffin & Ross, 1991; Ross & Nisbett, 1991). For example, if a per- son approaches you, slaps you on the back, and asks you how you are feeling, your response will depend not on what that person has done, but on how you interpret that behavior. You might construe these actions differently depending on whether they come from a close friend who is concerned about your health, a casual acquain- tance who is just passing the time of day, or an automobile salesperson attempting to be ingratiating for the purpose of selling you a used car. And your answer will vary also, even if the question about your health were worded the same and asked in the same tone of voice. You would be unlikely to say, “Actually, I’m feeling pretty worried about this kidney pain” to a salesperson, but you might tell your close friend.

The emphasis on construal has its roots in an approach called Gestalt psychology. First proposed as a theory of how people perceive the physical world, Gestalt psy- chology holds that we should study the subjective way in which an object appears in people’s minds (the gestalt, or whole) rather than the way in which the objective, phys- ical attributes of the object combine. For example, one way to understand how people perceive an overall image of a painting would be to break it down into its individual elements, such as the exact amounts of primary colors applied to the different parts of the canvas, the types of brushstrokes used to apply the colors, and the different geo- metric shapes they form. According to Gestalt psychologists, however, it is impossible to understand how an object is perceived only by studying these building blocks of perception. The whole is different from the sum of its parts. One must focus on the phenomenology of the perceivers—on how an object appears to them—instead of on its objective components.

Behaviorism A school of psychology maintaining that to understand human behavior, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment

Construal The way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the social world

Gestalt Psychology A school of psychology stressing the importance of studying the subjective way in which an object appears in people’s minds rather than the objective, physical attributes of the object

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Introducing Social Psychology 13

The Gestalt approach was formulated by German psychologists in the first part of the twentieth century. In the late 1930s, several of these psychologists fled to the United States to escape the Nazi regime. Among the émigrés was Kurt Lewin, gen- erally considered the founding father of modern experimental social psychology. As a young German Jewish professor in the 1930s, Lewin experienced the anti-Semitism rampant in Nazi Germany. The experience profoundly affected his thinking, and once he moved to the United States, Lewin helped shape American social psychology, directing it toward a deep interest in exploring the causes and cures of prejudice and ethnic stereotyping.

As a theorist, Lewin took the bold step of applying Gestalt principles beyond the perception of objects to social perception. It is often more important to understand how people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the social world, he said, than it is to understand its objective properties (Lewin, 1943). “If an individual sits in a room trusting that the ceiling will not come down,” he said, “should only his ‘subjective probability’ be taken into account for predicting behavior or should we also consider the ‘objective probability’ of the ceiling’s coming down as determined by engineers? To my mind, only the first has to be taken into account.”

Social psychologists soon began to focus on the importance of how people con- strue their environments. Fritz Heider, another early founder of social psychology, observed, “Generally, a person reacts to what he thinks the other person is perceiv- ing, feeling, and thinking, in addition to what the other person may be doing.” We are busy guessing all the time about the other person’s state of mind, motives, and thoughts. We may be right—but often we are wrong.

That is why construal has major implications. In a murder trial, when the pros- ecution presents compelling evidence it believes will prove the defendant guilty, the verdict always hinges on precisely how each jury member construes that evidence. These construals rest on a variety of events and perceptions that often bear no objec- tive relevance to the case. During cross-examination, did a key witness come across as being too remote or too arrogant? Did the prosecutor appear to be smug, obnoxious, or uncertain?

A special kind of construal is what Lee Ross calls “naïve realism,” the conviction that we perceive things “as they really are.” If other people see the same things differ- ently, therefore, it must be because they are biased (Ehrlinger, Gilovich, & Ross, 2005; Pronin, Gilovich, & Ross, 2004; Ross, 2010). Ross has been working closely with Israeli and Palestinian negotiators. These negotiations frequently run aground because of naïve realism; each side assumes that other reasonable people see things the same way they do. “[E]ven when each side recognizes that the other side perceives the issues differently,” says Ross, “each thinks that the other side is biased while they themselves are objective and that their own perceptions of reality should provide the basis for set- tlement.” So both sides resist compromise, fearing that their “biased” opponent will benefit more than they.

In a simple experiment, Ross took peace proposals created by Israeli negotiators, labeled them as Palestinian proposals, and asked Israeli citizens to judge them. The Israelis liked the Palestinian proposal attributed to Israel more than they liked the Israeli proposal attributed to the Palestinians. Ross concludes, “If your own proposal isn’t going to be attractive to you when it comes from the other side, what chance is there that the other side’s proposal is going to be attractive when it comes from the other side?” The hope is that once negotiators on both sides become fully aware of this phenomenon and how it impedes conflict resolution, a reasonable compromise will be more likely.

You can see that construals range from the simple (as in the question “How are you feeling?”) to the remarkably complex (international negotiations). And they affect all of us in our everyday lives. Imagine that Jason is a college student who admires Maria from afar. As a budding social psychologist, you have the job of predicting

Kurt Lewin (1890–1947).

Fritz Heider (1896–1988).

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whether or not Jason will ask Maria to have dinner with him. To do this, you need to begin by viewing Maria’s behavior through Jason’s eyes—that is, by seeing how Jason interprets her behavior. If she smiles at him, does Jason construe her behavior as mere politeness, the kind of politeness she would extend to any of the dozens of nerds and losers in their class? Or does he view her smile as an encouraging sign that inspires him to ask her out? If she ignores him, does Jason figure that she’s playing hard to get, or does he take it as a sign that she’s not interested in him? To predict what Jason will do, it is not enough to know Maria’s behavior; we must know how Jason interprets her behavior.

Now suppose that after class one day, Maria impulsively kisses Jason on the cheek as she says goodbye. Again, how he responds will depend on how he construes that act: Does he interpret that kiss as a sign of romantic interest on Maria’s part, clear evi- dence that she’s hot for him? Or does he see it as a sisterly signal that Maria wants to be friends but isn’t really into him? Were Jason to misinterpret the situation, he might commit a serious blunder: He might turn his back on what could have been the love of his life, or he might express his own passionate feelings inappropriately. In either case, social psychologists would say that the best strategy for understanding Jason’s reaction would be to find a way to determine his construal of Maria’s behavior rather than to dissect the objective nature of the kiss itself (its length, degree of pressure, etc.). But how are these construals formed? Stay tuned.

Research by social psychologists on construal shows why negotiation between nations can be so difficult: Each side thinks that it sees the issues clearly but that the other side is “biased.”

revIew QueSTIonS 1. The fundamental attribution error is best defined as the

tendency to a. explain our own and other people’s behavior entirely in

terms of personality traits, thereby underestimating the power of social influence.

b. explain our own and other people’s behavior in terms of the social situation, thereby underestimating the power of personality factors.

c. believe that people’s group memberships influence their behavior more than their personalities.

d. believe that people’s personalities influence their behavior more than their group memberships.

2. What does the Wall Street Game reveal about personality and situation? a. Competitive people will compete fiercely no matter what a

game is called. b. Cooperative people will try hard to get competitive

opponents to work with them. c. The name of the game makes no difference in how

people play the game.

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Introducing Social Psychology 15

Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives 1.3 What happens when people’s need to feel good about themselves conflicts

with their need to be accurate?

How will Jason determine why Maria kissed him? If it is true that subjective and not objective situations influence people, we need to understand how people arrive at their subjective impressions of the world. What are people trying to accomplish when they interpret the social world? Are they concerned with making an interpretation that places them in the most positive light (e.g., Jason’s deciding that “Maria is ignor- ing me just to make me jealous”) or with making the most accurate interpretation, even if it is unflattering (e.g., “Painful as it may be, I must admit that she would rather go out with a sea slug than with me”)? Social psychologists seek to understand the fundamental laws of human nature, common to all, that explain why we construe the social world the way we do.

We human beings are complex organisms. At any given moment, various inter- secting motives underlie our thoughts and behaviors, including hunger, thirst, fear, a desire for control, and the promise of love, favors, and other rewards. (See Chapters 10 and 11.) Social psychologists emphasize the importance of two central motives: the need to feel good about ourselves and the need to be accurate. Sometimes, each of these motives pulls us in the same direction. Often, though, these motives tug us in opposite directions, where to perceive the world accurately requires us to admit that we have behaved foolishly or immorally.

Leon Festinger, one of social psychology’s most innovative theorists, realized that it is precisely when these two motives pull in opposite directions that we can gain our most valuable insights into the workings of the mind. Imagine that you are the pres- ident of the United States and your country is engaged in a difficult and costly war. You have poured hundreds of billions of dollars into that war, and it has consumed tens of thousands of American lives as well as thousands more lives of innocent civil- ians. The war seems to be at a stalemate; no end is in sight. You frequently wake up in the middle of the night, bathed in the cold sweat of conflict: On the one hand, you deplore all the carnage that is going on; on the other hand, you don’t want to go down in history as the first American president to lose a war.

Some of your advisers tell you that they can see the light at the end of the tunnel, and that if you intensify the bombing or add thousands more troops, the enemy will soon capitulate and the war will be over. This would be a great outcome for you: Not only will you have succeeded in achieving your military and political aims, but his- tory will consider you to have been a great leader as well. Other advisers, however,

d. The name of the game strongly influences how people play the game.

3. A stranger approaches Emily on campus and says he is a professional photographer. He asks if she will spend 15 minutes posing for pictures next to the student union. According to social psychologists, Emily’s decision will depend on which of the following? a. How well dressed the man is. b. Whether the man offers to pay her. c. How Emily construes the situation. d. Whether the man has a criminal record.

4. Social psychology had its origins in a. Gestalt psychology. b. Freudian psychology. c. behavioral psychology. d. biological psychology.

5. “Naïve realism” refers to the fact that a. most people are naïve (uneducated) about psychology. b. few people are realistic. c. most people would rather be naïve than accurate. d. most people believe they perceive things accurately.

See page AK-1 for the answers.

Leon Festinger (1919–1989) wrote: “If the empirical world looks complicated, if people seem to react in bewilderingly different ways to similar forces, and if I cannot see the operation of universal underlying dynamics, then that is my fault. I have asked the wrong questions; I have, at a theoretical level, sliced up the world incorrectly. The underlying dynamics are there, and I have to find the theoretical apparatus that will enable me to reveal these uniformities.” Finding and illuminating those underlying dynamics is the goal of social psychology.

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believe that intensifying the bombing will only strengthen the enemy’s resolve; they advise you to sue for peace.

Which advisers are you likely to believe? Pres- ident Lyndon Johnson faced this exact dilemma in the 1960s, with the war in Vietnam; so did George W. Bush in 2003, when the war in Iraq did not end in six weeks as he had predicted; so did Barack Obama, in deciding in 2009 whether to invest more troops in the war in Afghanistan. (See Chapter 6.) Most presidents have chosen to believe their advis- ers who suggest escalating the war, because if they succeed in winning, the victory justifies the human and financial cost; but withdrawing not only means going down in history as a president who lost a war, but also having to justify the fact that all those lives and all that money have been spent in vain. As you can see, the need to feel good about our decisions can fly in the face of the need to be accurate, and can have catastrophic consequences (Draper, 2008; McClellan, 2008; Woodward, 2011). In Johnson’s case, the decision to increase the bombing did strengthen the enemy’s resolve, thereby prolonging the war in Vietnam.

The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About Ourselves Most people have a strong need to maintain reasonably high self-esteem—that is, to see themselves as good, competent, and decent (Aronson, 1998, 2007; Baumeister, 1993; Tavris & Aronson, 2007). Given the choice between distorting the world to feel good about themselves and representing the world accurately, people often take the first option. They put a slightly different spin on the matter, one that puts them in the best possible light. You might consider your friend Roger to be a nice guy but an awful slob—somehow he’s always got stains on his shirt and empty food cartons all over his kitchen. Roger, though, probably describes himself as being casual and noncompulsive.

Self-esteem is obviously a beneficial thing, but when it causes people to justify their actions rather than learn from them, it can impede change and self-improve- ment. Suppose a couple gets divorced after 10 years of a marriage made difficult by the husband’s irrational jealousy. Rather than admitting the truth—that his jealousy and possessiveness drove his wife away—the husband blames the breakup of his mar- riage on her; she was not responsive enough to his needs. His interpretation serves a purpose: It makes him feel better about himself (Simpson, 2010). The consequence of this distortion, of course, is that learning from experience becomes unlikely. In his next marriage, the husband will probably recreate the same problems. Acknowledging our deficiencies is difficult, even when the cost is seeing the world inaccurately.

SufferinG and Self-JuStification Let’s go back to one of our early scenar- ios: Oscar and the hazing he went through to join his fraternity. Personality psycholo- gists might suggest that only extroverts who have a high tolerance for embarrassment would want to be in a fraternity. Behavioral psychologists would predict that Os- car would dislike anyone or anything that caused him pain and humiliation. Social psychologists, however, have found that the major reason that Oscar and his fellow pledges like their fraternity brothers so much was the degrading hazing ritual itself.

Self-Esteem People’s evaluations of their own self-worth—that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent

This is Edward Snowden, a former computing contractor for the National Security Agency. Snowden’s release in 2013 of thousands of classified documents related to the U.S. government’s surveillance programs led the Department of Justice to charge him with espionage. Some have argued that Snowden is a spy, a traitor, and a criminal who should be brought back to the United States from his asylum in Russia to face trial. Others view him as a whistleblower, a patriot, and a hero fighting to protect privacy rights and inform the American public of what its government is up to (in fact, here you see him pictured receiving a German peace prize, a prize he was only able to accept via Skype). Each side is sure that they are right. Where do differing construals come from, and what are their consequences?

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Here’s how it works. If Oscar goes through a severe hazing to become a member of the fra- ternity but later discovers unpleasant things about his fraternity brothers, he will feel like a fool: “Why did I go through all that pain and embarrassment to live in a house with a bunch of jerks?” To avoid feeling like a fool, he will try to justify his decision to undergo the haz- ing by distorting his evaluation of his fraternity brothers. He will try to put a positive spin on his experiences.

An outside observer like his sister Janine, however, can see the downside of fraternity life more clearly. The fraternity dues make a significant dent in Oscar’s budget, the frequent parties take a toll on the amount of studying he can do, and consequently his grades suffer. But Oscar is motivated to see these negatives as trivial; indeed, he considers them a small price to pay for the sense of brotherhood he feels. He focuses on the good parts of liv- ing in the fraternity, and he dismisses the bad parts as inconsequential.

Does this explanation sound far-fetched? In a series of laboratory experiments, social psychologists investigated the psychological consequences of hazing. The experimenters held constant everything in the situation, including the precise behav- ior of the fraternity members; the only thing they varied was the severity of the hazing that the students underwent to become members. The results demonstrated that the more unpleasant the procedure the participants underwent to get into a group, the more they liked the group—even though, objectively, the group members were the same people behaving the same way for everyone (Aronson & Mills, 1959; Gerard & Mathewson, 1966). (See Chapter 6.)

The take-home message is that human beings are motivated to maintain a pos- itive picture of themselves, in part by justifying their behavior, and that under cer- tain specifiable conditions, this leads them to do things that at first glance might seem surprising or paradoxical. They might prefer people and things for whom they have suffered to people and things they associate with ease and pleasure.

The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate Even when people are bending the facts to see themselves as favorably as they can, most do not live in a fantasy world. We might say they bend reality but don’t com- pletely break it. But the ways in which human beings think about themselves and the social world influence what they do. Many social psychologists therefore special- ize in the study of social cognition: how people select, interpret, remember, and use information to make judgments and decisions (Fiske & Taylor, 2013; Markus & Zajonc, 1985; Nisbett & Ross, 1980). Researchers who investigate processes of social cognition begin with the assumption that all people try to view the world as accurately as possi- ble. They regard human beings as amateur sleuths who are doing their best to under- stand and predict their social world.

Just as the need to preserve self-esteem can occasionally run aground, so too does the need to be accurate. Unfortunately, we often make mistakes in that effort to understand and predict, because we almost never know all the facts we need to judge a given situation accurately. Whether it is a relatively simple decision, such as which breakfast cereal offers the best combination of healthfulness and tastiness, or a slightly more complex decision, such as our desire to buy the best car we can

Social Cognition How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions

These first-year students are being “welcomed” to their university by seniors who subject them to hazing. Hazing is sometimes silly, but it is often dangerous as well (and even fatal), leading college campuses to crack down on the practice. One difficulty faced by such efforts is that for all of its downsides, hazing can also build group cohesiveness.

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for under $12,000, or a much more complex decision, such as choosing a partner who will make us deliriously happy for the rest of our lives, it is usually impossi- ble to gather all the relevant information in advance. Moreover, we make countless decisions every day. No one has the time and stamina to gather all the facts for each of them.

Does this sound overblown? Aren’t most decisions fairly easy? Let’s take a closer look. Which breakfast cereal is better for you, Lucky Charms or Quaker Oats 100% natural granola with oats, honey, and raisins? If you are like most of our students, you answered, “100% Natural.” After all, Lucky Charms is a kids’ cereal, full of sugar and cute little marshmallows, with a picture of a leprechaun on the box. Quaker Oats cereal boxes have pictures of healthy granola and wheat, and doesn’t natural mean “good for you”? If that’s the way you reasoned, you have fallen into a common cog- nitive trap: You have generalized from the cover to the product. A careful reading of the ingredients in small print will reveal that, per one cup serving, Quaker Oats 100% Natural has 420 calories, 30 grams of sugar, and 12 grams of fat; Men’s Health maga- zine rated it the worst packaged cereal in America. In contrast, a cup of Lucky Charms has 142 calories, 14 grams of sugar, and 1 gram of fat. Even in the simple world of cereals, things are not always what they seem.

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