Essay 4- Motivation, Values And Purpose
PSYC 101
Essay Grading Rubric
The Case of Sara
1- The Case of Sara
For this discussion, refer to the story of Sara located on page 41 of your Behavior Modification text. This case study deals with out-of-seat behaviors. Post a substantive response to the following discussion questions:
- What is the behavioral definition of out-of-seat behavior?
- What recording method will you recommend to record Sara’s out-of-seat behavior?
- What instrument will you recommend for recording Sara’s behavior? How will the instrument be practical for use in this scenario?
2- Reply to your friend’s post
11 hours ago
Per James’s description of Sara’s “out-of-seat” behavior, she gets out of her seat and talks to or teases other peers resulting in class disruption and inattentiveness to James. Therefore, I would define this out-of-seat behavior as any instance that Sara’s bottom leaves the seat and her legs are fully extended for a minimum of 5 seconds and/or she is speaking to a peer without the teacher’s permission. Personally, I would care the most about how many times Sara engages in this behavior (frequency) and also how long she can go between engaging in this behavior (inter response time). While I do think duration is something to consider I think inter-response time is important to determine possible functions of the behavior. Is there an average time she goes without engaging in behavior? Could this be linked to her attention span or ADHD? Is the time between completely variable and could be based on the current class content? There are many things inter-response time could potentially lead us towards. I would use finger clickers to record frequency. I would recommend pencil and paper to quickly jot down the time the behavior ends and the time it begins again at the podium or teacher’s desk or whatever is near him when teaching.
THE BRAIN….THE LEARNING MACHINE VIDEO
PAR-1 Select a part of the brain. Explain its functions and how it impacts learning!
The Brain-SELECT ONE PART AND EXPLAIN
Brain—3 Divisions
Hindbrain—primitive core, 1st to form, top of spinal cord, regulates basic somatic activities like breathing
- Brain stem-top of spinal cord-2 parts
i. Medulla oblongata-bump in spinal cord, controls breathing, heart rate, BP, digestion; damage is usually fatal
ii. Pons-connects the two halves of the cerebellum, regulates arousal
1. raphe nuclei—system of nerves through the pons, uses serotonin, believed to trigger and maintain slow wave sleep
- Cerebellum—maintains balance, coordinates movements, and controls posture. Damage can cause ataxia—slurred speech, tremors, and loss of balance.
- Midbrain—old brain, next to form, involved with other aspects of movement and sleep
- Reticular formation—system of nerves; from spinal cord through hindbrain and into midbrain. Involved with sleep, maintaining a waking state, arousal and attention. Also plays a part in the sensation of touch.
- Substantia nigra—midbrain into forebrain—system of nerves; regulates many aspects of movement such as initiation, termination, smoothness, and directedness. Parkinson’s—reduced dopamine, destroys substantia nigra
- Forebrain—newest brain, last to form, involved with higher order thinking
- Subcortical Structures
i. Thalamus—“the relay station”—relays information from incoming sensory systems (except for olfactory information, which goes directly to the limbic system) to the appropriate areas of the cortex. Also involved with motor activity, language, and memory. Korsakoff Syndrome involves damage to neurons in the thalamus and mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus.
ii. Hypothalamus—controls ANS and Endocrine system in conjunction with the pituitary gland. Maintains homeostasis of fluids, temperature, metabolism, and appetite. Involved with motivated behaviors such as eating, drinking, sex, and aggression.
1. Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)—system of nerves located in the hypothalamus; involved with regulating circadian rhythms. Takes information from the eyes (retina), interprets it, and passes it on to the pineal gland which then secretes the hormone melatonin.
iii. Basal Ganglia—system of nerves; includes the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra. Involved with planning, organizing, and coordinating voluntary movement. Disorders associated with the basal ganglia are: Huntington’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, and Tourette’s Syndrome. Also implicated in mania, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and psychosis.
iv. Limbic System—several brain structures that work together to mediate the emotional component of behavior. Also involved with memory.
1. Amygdala—integrates and directs emotional behavior, attaches emotional significance to sensory information and mediates defensive and aggressive behavior
2. Septum—inhibits emotionality
3. Hippocampus—involved more with memory, particularly the transfer of memory from short-term to long-term memory
- Cerebral Cortex—makes up more than 80% of brain’s total weight and is responsible for higher cognitive, emotional, and motor functions. This is the outer, gray “squiggly” area, and it is divided into 4 lobes.
i. Frontal lobe—includes motor, premotor, and prefrontal areas. Receives information from other areas of the brain and then sends out commands to muscles to make voluntary movements. Involved with expressive language. Higher order skills, such as planning, organizing, and reasoning. Also, some concentration, attention, and orientation.
ii. Parietal—contains somatosensory cortex; involved with interpreting and making sense of touch, pain, and temperature
iii. Temporal—sound and smell, receptive language, memory and emotion
-lateral fissure—separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and part of the parietal lobes
iv. Occipital—receives visual impulses, involved in understanding visual information
PART-2 Transfer of learning is discussed in depth in Chapter 6, so make sure to review this!
What are the types of transfer that can occur? Describe the transfer process as it relates to learning in a specific workplace of your choosing.
PART-3 Review this week’s course materials and learning activities, and reflect on your learning so far this week. Respond to one or more of the following prompts in one to two paragraphs:
- Describe what you found interesting regarding this topic, and why.
- Describe how you will apply that learning in your daily life, including your work life.
- Describe what may be unclear to you, and what you would like to learn.
**Provide citation and reference to the material(s) you discuss.**
PART 4-University of Phoenix Material – YOU MUST WATCH THIS VIDEO “The Learning Machine” ONLINE IN ORDER TO COMPLETE THIS ASSIGNMENT
Analysis of Factors in the Transfer Process
Watch the “The Learning Machine” video available on the student website.
Select and complete one of the following assignments:
Option 1: Transfer of Learning PresenSelect specific detailed examples of learning theories (behaviorism, social cognitive, information processing and constructivism) in the video that demonstrate ways to apply transfer of learning concepts in a specific workplace of your choosing.
Prepare a 10-12 slide Microsoft® PowerPoint® presentation with speaker notes for your classmates on your ideas.
Address the following in your presentation:
· Relate the example to one or more of the explanations of transfer of learning included in one of the learning theories.
· Provide a description of how this example can be generalized to the workplace.
Option 2: Transfer of Learning Paper
Select specific detailed examples of learning theories (behaviorism, social cognitive, information processing and constructivism) in the video that demonstrate methods to apply transfer of learning concepts in a specific workplace of your choosing.
Prepare a 3- to 5-page essay on your ideas. Share this essay with your classmates by posting on the student website or providing paper copies.
Address the following in your essay:
· Relate the example to one or more of the explanations of transfer of learning included in one of the learning theories.
· Provide a description of how this example can be generalized to the workplace.
Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines.
| Title
ABC/123 Version X |
1 |
| Analysis of Factors in the Transfer Process
PSYCH/635 Version 2 |
1 |
Chapter 2 Neuroscience of Learning
The Tarrytown Unified School District was holding an all-day workshop for teachers and administrators on the topic of “Using Brain Research to Design Effective Instruction.” During the afternoon break a group of four participants were discussing the day’s session: Joe Michela, assistant principal at North Tarrytown Middle School; Claudia Orondez, principal of Templeton Elementary School; Emma Thomas, teacher at Tarrytown Central High School; and Bryan Young, teacher at South Tarrytown Middle School.
| Joe: | So, what do you think of this so far? |
| Bryan: | It’s really confusing. I followed pretty well this morning the part about the functions of different areas of the brain, but I’m having a hard time connecting that with what I do as a teacher. |
| Emma: | Me, too. The presenters are saying things that contradict what I thought. I had heard that each student has a dominant side of the brain so we should design instruction to match those preferences, but these presenters say that isn’t true. |
| Joe: | Well they’re not exactly saying it isn’t true. What I understood was that different parts of the brain have different primary functions but that there’s a lot of crossover and that many parts of the brain have to work at once for learning to occur. |
| Claudia: | That’s what I heard too. But I agree with Bryan—it’s confusing to know what a teacher is to do. If we’re supposed to appeal to all parts of the brain, then isn’t that what teachers try to do now? For years we’ve been telling teachers to design instruction to accommodate different student learning styles—seeing, hearing, touching. Seems like brain research says the same thing. |
| Joe: | Especially seeing they said how important the visual sense is. I tell teachers not to lecture so much since that’s not an effective way to learn. |
| Bryan: | True, Joe. Another thing they said that threw me was how much teens’ brains are developing. I thought their wacky behavior was all about hormones. I see now that I need to be helping them more to make good decisions. |
| Emma: | I think this really is fascinating. This session has made me aware of how the brain receives and uses information. But it’s so complex! For me, the challenge is to match brain functioning with how I organize and present information and the activities I design for students. |
| Claudia: | I’ve got lots of questions to ask after this break. I know there’s much that researchers don’t know, but I’m ready to start working with my elementary teachers to use brain research to benefit our children. |
Many different learning theories and processes are discussed in subsequent chapters in this text. Behavior theories ( Chapter 3 ) focus on external behaviors and consequences, whereas cognitive theories—the focus of this text—posit that learning occurs internally. Cognitive processes include thoughts, beliefs, and emotions, all of which have neural representations.
This chapter addresses the neuroscience of learning , or the science of the relation of the nervous system to learning and behavior. Although neuroscience is not a learning theory, being familiar with neuroscience will give you a better foundation to understand the learning chapters that follow.
The focus of this chapter is on the central nervous system ( CNS ), which comprises the brain and spinal cord. Most of the chapter covers brain rather than spinal cord functions. The autonomic nervous system ( ANS ), which regulates involuntary actions (e.g., respiration, secretions), is mentioned where relevant.
The role of the brain in learning and behavior is not a new topic, but its significance among educators has increased in recent years. Although educators always have been concerned about the brain because the business of educators is learning and the brain is where learning occurs, much brain research has investigated brain dysfunctions. To some extent, this research is relevant to education because educators have students in their classes with handicaps. But because most students do not have brain dysfunctions, findings from brain research have not been viewed as highly applicable to typical learners.
The advances in technology have made possible new methods that can show how the brain functions while people perform mental operations involving learning and memory. The data yielded by these new methods are highly relevant to classroom teaching and learning and suggest implications for learning, motivation, and development. Educators are interested in findings from neuroscience research as they seek ways to improve teaching and learning for all students (Byrnes, 2012 ). This interest is evident in the opening vignette.
This chapter begins by reviewing the brain’s neural organization and major structures involved in learning, motivation, and development. The topics of localization and interconnections of brain structures are discussed, along with methods used to conduct brain research. The neurophysiology of learning is covered, which includes the neural organization of information processing, memory networks, and language learning. The important topic of brain development is discussed to include the influential factors on development, phases of development, critical periods of development, language development, and the role of technology. How motivation and emotions are represented in the brain is explained, and the chapter concludes with a discussion of the major implications of brain research for teaching and learning.
Discussions of the CNS are necessarily complex, as Emma notes in the opening scenario. Many structures are involved, there is much technical terminology, and CNS operation is complicated. The material in this chapter is presented as clearly as possible, but a certain degree of technicality is needed to preserve the accuracy of information. Readers who seek more technical descriptions of CNS structures and functions as they relate to learning, motivation, self-regulation, and development are referred to other sources (Byrnes, 2001 , 2012 ; Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, 2007 ; Heatherton, 2011 ; Jensen, 2005 ; National Research Council, 2000 ; Wang & Morris, 2010 ; Wolfe, 2010 ).
· When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
· ■ Describe the neural organization and functions of axons, dendrites, and glial cells.
· ■ Discuss the primary functions of the major areas of the brain.
· ■ Identify some brain functions that are highly localized in the right and left hemispheres.
· ■ Discuss the uses of different brain research technologies.
· ■ Explain how learning occurs from a neuroscience perspective to include the operation of consolidation and memory networks.
· ■ Discuss how neural connections are formed and interact during language acquisition and use.
· ■ Discuss the key changes and critical periods in brain development as a function of maturation and experience.
· ■ Explain the role of the brain in the regulation of motivation and emotions.
· ■ Discuss some instructional implications of brain research for teaching and learning.
ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURES
The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord and is the body’s central mechanism for control of voluntary behavior (e.g., thinking, acting). The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates involuntary activities, such as those involved in digestion, respiration, and blood circulation. These systems are not entirely independent. People can, for example, exert some control over their heart rates, which means that they are voluntarily controlling an involuntary activity.
The spinal cord is about 18 inches long and the width of an index finger. It runs from the base of the brain down the middle of the back. It is essentially an extension of the brain. Its primary function is to carry signals to and from the brain, making it the central messenger between the brain and the rest of the body. Its ascending pathway carries signals from body locations to the brain, and its descending pathway carries messages from the brain to the appropriate body structure (e.g., to cause movement). The spinal cord also is involved in some reactions independently of the brain (e.g., knee-jerk reflex). Damage to the spinal cord, such as from an accident, can result in symptoms ranging from numbness to total paralysis (Jensen, 2005 ; Wolfe, 2010 ).
Figure 2.1 Structure of neurons.
Neural Organization
The CNS is composed of billions of cells in the brain and spinal cord. There are two major types of cells: neurons and glial cells. A depiction of neural organization is shown in Figure 2.1 .
Neurons.
The brain and spinal cord contain about 100 billion neurons that send and receive information across muscles and organs (Wolfe, 2010 ). Most of the body’s neurons are found in the CNS. Neurons are different from other body cells (e.g., skin, blood) in two important ways. For one, most body cells regularly regenerate. This continual renewal is desirable; for example, when we cut ourselves, new cells regenerate to replace those that were damaged. But neurons do not regenerate in the same fashion. Brain and spinal cord cells destroyed by a stroke, disease, or accident may be permanently lost. On a positive note, however, there is evidence that neurons can show some regeneration (Kempermann & Gage, 1999 ), although the extent to which this occurs and the process by which it occurs are not well understood.
Neurons are also different from other body cells because they communicate with one another through electrical signals and chemical reactions. They thus are organized differently than other body cells. This organization is discussed later in this section.
Glial Cells.
The second type of cell in the CNS is the glial cell . Glial cells are far more numerous than neurons. They may be thought of as supporting cells since they support the work of the neurons. They do not transmit signals like neurons, but they assist in the process.
Glial cells perform many functions. A key one is to ensure that neurons operate in a good environment. Glial cells help to remove chemicals that may interfere with neuron operation. Glial cells also remove dead brain cells. Another important function is that glial cells put down myelin, a sheathlike wrapping around axons that helps transmit brain signals (discussed in the next section). Glial cells also appear to play key functions in the development of the fetal brain (Wolfe, 2010 ). In short, glial cells work in concert with neurons to ensure effective functioning of the CNS.
Synapses.
Figure 2.1 shows neural organization with cell bodies, axons, and dendrites. Each neuron is composed of a cell body, thousands of short dendrites, and one axon. A dendrite is an elongated tissue that receives information from other cells. An axon is a long thread of tissue that sends messages to other cells. Myelin sheath surrounds the axon and facilitates the travel of signals.
Each axon ends in a branching structure. The ends of these branching structures connect with the ends of dendrites. This connection is known as a synapse . The interconnected structure is the key to how neurons communicate, because messages are passed among neurons at the synapses.
The process by which neurons communicate is complex. At the end of each axon are chemical neurotransmitters . They do not quite touch dendrites of another cell. The gap is called the synaptic gap .When electrical and chemical signals reach a high enough level, neurotransmitters are released into the gap. The neurotransmitters either will activate or inhibit a reaction in the contacted dendrite. Thus, the process begins as an electrical reaction in the neuron and axon, changes to a chemical reaction in the gap, and then reconverts to an electrical response in the dendrite. This process continues from neuron to neuron in lightning speed. As discussed later in this chapter, the role of the neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap is critical for learning. From a neuroscience perspective, learning is a change in the receptivity of cells brought about by neural connections formed, strengthened, and connected with others through use (Jensen, 2005 ; Wolfe, 2010 ).
Brain Structures
The human adult brain ( cerebrum ) weighs approximately three pounds and is about the size of a cantaloupe or large grapefruit (Tolson, 2006 ; Wolfe, 2010 ). Its outward texture has a series of folds and is wrinkly in appearance, resembling a cauliflower. Its composition is mostly water (78%), with the rest fat and protein. Its texture is generally soft. The major brain structures involved in learning are shown in Figure 2.2 (Byrnes, 2001 ; Jensen, 2005 ; Wolfe, 2010 ) and described below.
Cerebral Cortex.
Covering the brain is the cerebral cortex , which is a thin layer about the thickness of an orange peel (less than ¼ of an inch). The cerebral cortex is the wrinkled “gray matter” of the brain. The wrinkles allow the cerebral cortex to have more surface area, which allows for more neurons and neural connections. The cerebral cortex has two hemispheres (right and left), each of which has four lobes (occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal). The cortex is the central area involved in learning, memory, and processing of sensory information.
Figure 2.2 Major brain structures.
Brain Stem and Reticular Formation.
At the base of the brain is the brain stem . The brain stem handles ANS (involuntary) functions through its reticular formation , which is a network of neurons and fibers that regulates control of such basic bodily functions as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, eyeball movement, salivation, and taste. The reticular formation also is involved in awareness levels (e.g., sleep, wakefulness). For example, when you go into a quiet, dark room, the reticular formation decreases brain activation and allows you to sleep. The reticular formation also helps to control sensory inputs. Although we constantly are bombarded by multiple stimuli, the reticular formation allows us to focus on relevant stimuli. This is critical for attention and perception ( Chapter 5 ), which are key components of the human information processing system. Finally, the reticular formation produces many of the chemical messengers for the brain.
Cerebellum.
The cerebellum at the back of the brain regulates body balance, muscular control, movement, and body posture. Although these activities are largely under conscious control (and therefore the domain of the cortex), the cortex does not have all the equipment it needs to regulate them. It works in concert with the cerebellum to coordinate movements. The cerebellum is the key to motor skill acquisition. With practice, many motor skills (e.g., playing the piano, driving a car) become largely automatic. This automaticity occurs because the cerebellum takes over much of the control, which allows the cortex to focus on activities requiring consciousness (e.g., thinking, problem solving).
Thalamus and Hypothalamus.
Above the brain stem are two walnut-sized structures—the thalamus and hypothalamus . The thalamus acts as a bridge by sending inputs from the sense organs (except for smell) to the cortex. The hypothalamus is part of the ANS. It controls bodily functions needed to maintain homeostasis, such as body temperature, sleep, water, and food. The hypothalamus also is responsible for increased heart rate and breathing when we become frightened or stressed.
Amygdala.
The amygdala is involved in the control of emotion and aggression. Incoming sensory inputs (except for smell, which travel straight to the cortex) go to the thalamus, which in turn relays the information to the appropriate area of the cortex and to the amygdala. The amygdala’s function is to assess the harmfulness of sensory inputs. If it recognizes a potentially harmful stimulus, it signals the hypothalamus, which creates the emotional changes noted above (e.g., increased heart rate and blood pressure).
Hippocampus.
The hippocampus is the brain structure responsible for memory of the immediate past. How long is the immediate past? As we will see in Chapters 5 and 6 , there is no objective criterion for what constitutes immediate and long-term (permanent) memory. Apparently the hippocampus helps establish information in long-term memory (which resides in the cortex), but maintains its role in activating that information as needed. Thus, the hippocampus may be involved in currently active (working) memory. Once information is fully encoded in long-term memory, the hippocampus may relinquish its role.
Corpus Callosum.
Running along the brain (cerebrum) from front to back is a band of fibers known as the corpus callosum .It divides the cerebrum into two halves, or hemispheres, and connects them for neural processing. This is critical, because much mental processing occurs in more than one location in the brain and often involves both hemispheres.
Occipital Lobe.
The occipital lobes of the cerebrum are primarily concerned with processing visual information. The occipital lobe also is known as the visual cortex . Visual stimuli are first received by the thalamus, which then sends these signals to the occipital lobes. Many functions occur here that involve determining motion, color, depth, distance, and other visual features. Once these determinations have occurred, the visual stimuli are compared to what is stored in memory to determine recognition (perception). An object that matches a stored pattern is recognized. When there is no match, then a new stimulus is encoded in memory. The visual cortex must communicate with other brain systems to determine whether a visual stimulus matches a stored pattern (Gazzaniga, Ivry, & Mangun, 1998 ). The importance of visual processing in learning is highlighted in the opening vignette by Joe.
People can readily control their visual perception by forcing themselves to attend to certain features of the environment and to ignore others. If we are searching for a friend in a crowd we can ignore a multitude of visual stimuli and focus only on those (e.g., facial features) that will help us determine whether our friend is present. Teachers apply this idea when they ask students to pay attention to visual displays and inform them of learning objectives at the start of the class.
Parietal Lobe.
The parietal lobes at the top of the brain in the cerebrum are responsible for the sense of touch, and they help determine body position and integrate visual information. The parietal lobes have anterior (front) and posterior (rear) sections. The anterior part receives information from the body regarding touch, temperature, body position, and sensations of pain and pressure (Wolfe, 2010 ). Each part of the body has certain areas in the anterior part that receive its information and make identification accurate.
The posterior portion integrates tactile information to provide spatial body awareness, or knowing where the parts of your body are at all times. The parietal lobes also can increase or decrease attention to various body parts. For example, a pain in your leg will be received and identified by the parietal lobe, but if you are watching an enjoyable movie and are attending closely to that, you may not experience the pain in your leg.
Temporal Lobe.
The temporal lobes , located on the side of the cerebrum, are responsible for processing auditory information. When an auditory input is received—such as a voice or other sound—that information is processed and transmitted to auditory memory to determine recognition. That recognition then can lead to action. When a teacher tells students to put away their books and line up at the door, that auditory information is processed and recognized, and then leads to the appropriate action.
Located where the occipital, parietal, and temporal lobes intersect in the cortex’s left hemisphere is Wernicke’s area , which allows us to comprehend speech and to use proper syntax when speaking. This area works closely with another area in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere known as Broca’s area ,which is necessary for speaking. Although these key language processing areas are situated in the left hemisphere (but Broca’s area is in the right hemisphere for some people, as explained later), many parts of the brain work together to comprehend and produce language. Language is discussed in greater depth later in this chapter.
Frontal Lobe.
The frontal lobes , which lie at the front of the cerebrum, make up the largest part of the cortex. Their central functions are to process information relating to memory, planning, decision making, goal setting, and creativity. The frontal lobes also contain the primary motor cortex that regulates muscular movements.
It might be argued that the frontal lobes in the brain most clearly distinguish us from lower animals and even from our ancestors of generations past. The frontal lobes have evolved to assume ever more complex functions. They allow us to plan and make conscious decisions, solve problems, and converse with others. Further, these lobes allow us to be aware of our thinking and other mental processes, a form of metacognition ( Chapter 7 ).
Running from the top of the brain down toward the ears is a strip of cells known as the primary motor cortex . This area is the area that controls the body’s movements. If while dancing the “Hokey Pokey” you think “put your right foot in,” it is the motor cortex that directs you to put your right foot in. Each part of the body is mapped to a particular location in the motor cortex, so a signal from a certain part of the cortex leads to the proper movement being made.
In front of the motor cortex is Broca’s area, which is the location governing the production of speech. This area is located in the left hemisphere for about 95% of people; for the other 5% (30% of left-handers) this area is in the right hemisphere (Wolfe, 2010 ). Not surprisingly, this area is linked to Wernicke’s area in the left temporal lobe with nerve fibers. Speech is formed in Wernicke’s area and then transferred to Broca’s area to be produced (Wolfe, 2010 ).
The front part of the frontal lobe, or prefrontal cortex , is proportionately larger in humans than in other animals. It is here that the highest forms of mental activity occur (Ackerman, 1992 ). Chapter 5 discusses how cognitive information processing associations are made in the brain. The prefrontal cortex is critical for these associations, because information received from the senses is related to knowledge stored in memory. In short, the seat of learning appears to be in the prefrontal cortex. It also is the regulator of consciousness, allowing us to be aware of what we are thinking, feeling, and doing. As explained later, the prefrontal cortex seems to be involved in the regulation of emotions.
Table 2.1 summarizes the key functions of each of the major brain areas (Byrnes, 2001 ; Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, 2007 ; Jensen, 2005 ; Wolfe, 2010 ). When reviewing this table, keep in mind that no part of the brain works independently. Rather, information (in the form of neural impulses) is rapidly transferred among areas of the brain. Although many brain functions are localized, different parts of the brain are involved in even simple tasks. It therefore makes little sense to label any brain function as residing in only one area, as brought out in the opening vignette by Emma.
Localization and Interconnections
We know much more about the brain’s operation today than ever before, but the functions of the left and right hemispheres have been debated for a long time. Around 400 B.C. Hippocrates spoke of the duality of the brain (Wolfe, 2010 ). In 1870 researchers electrically stimulated different parts of the brains of animals and soldiers with head injuries (Cowey, 1998 ). They found that stimulation of certain parts of the brain caused movements in different parts of the body. The idea that the brain has a major hemisphere was proposed as early as 1874 (Binney & Janson, 1990 ).
In general, the left hemisphere governs the right visual field and side of the body and the right hemisphere regulates the left visual field and side of the body. However, the two hemispheres are joined by bundles of fibers, the largest of which is the corpus callosum. Gazzaniga, Bogen, and Sperry ( 1962 ) demonstrated that language is controlled largely by the left hemisphere. These researchers found that when the corpus callosum was severed, patients who held an object out of sight in their left hands claimed they were holding nothing. Apparently, without the visual stimulus and because the left hand communicates with the right hemisphere, when this hemisphere received the input, it could not produce a name (because language is localized in the left hemisphere) and, with a severed corpus callosum, the information could not be transferred to the left hemisphere.
Table 2.1 Key functions of areas of the brain.
| Area | Key Functions |
| Cerebral cortex | Processes sensory information; regulates various learning and memory functions |
| Reticular formation | Controls bodily functions (e.g., breathing and blood pressure), arousal, sleep–wakefulness |
| Cerebellum | Regulates body balance, posture, muscular control, movement, motor skill acquisition |
| Thalamus | Sends inputs from senses (except for smell) to cortex |
| Hypothalamus | Controls homeostatic body functions (e.g., temperature, sleep, water, and food); increases heart rate and breathing during stress |
| Amygdala | Controls emotions and aggression; assesses harmfulness of sensory inputs |
| Hippocampus | Holds memory of immediate past and working memory; establishes information in long-term memory |
| Corpus callosum | Connects right and left hemispheres |
| Occipital lobe | Processes visual information |
| Parietal lobe | Processes tactile information; determines body position; integrates visual information |
| Temporal lobe | Processes auditory information |
| Frontal lobe | Processes information for memory, planning, decision making, goal setting, creativity; regulates muscular movements (primary motor cortex) |
| Broca’s area | Controls production of speech |
| Wernicke’s area | Comprehends speech; regulates use of proper syntax when speaking |
Brain research also has identified other localized functions. Analytical thinking seems to be centered in the left hemisphere, whereas spatial, auditory, emotional, and artistic processing occurs in the right hemisphere (but the right hemisphere apparently processes negative emotions and the left hemisphere processes positive emotions; Ornstein, 1997 ). Music is processed better in the right hemisphere; directionality, in the right hemisphere; and facial recognition, the left hemisphere.
The right hemisphere also plays a critical role in interpreting contexts (Wolfe, 2010 ). For example, assume that someone hears a piece of news and says, “That’s great!” This could mean the person thinks the news is wonderful or horrible. The context determines the correct meaning (e.g., whether the speaker is being sincere or sarcastic). Context can be gained from intonation, people’s facial expressions and gestures, and knowledge of other elements in the situation. It appears that the right hemisphere is the primary location for assembling contextual information so that a proper interpretation can be made.
Because functions are localized in brain sections, it has been tempting to postulate that people who are highly verbal are dominated by their left hemisphere (left brained), whereas those who are more artistic and emotional are controlled by their right hemisphere (right brained). But this is a simplistic and misleading conclusion, as the educators in the opening scenario realize. Although hemispheres have localized functions, they are connected, and there is much passing of information (neural impulses) between them. Very little mental processing likely occurs only in one hemisphere (Ornstein, 1997 ). Further, we might ask which hemisphere governs individuals who are both highly verbal and emotional (e.g., impassioned speakers).
The hemispheres work in concert; information is available to both of them at all times. Speech offers a good example. If you are having a conversation with a friend, it is your left hemisphere that allows you to produce speech but your right hemisphere that provides the context and helps you comprehend meaning.
Neuroscientists do not agree about the extent of lateralization . Some argue that specific cognitive functions are localized in specific regions of the brain, whereas others believe that different regions have the ability to perform various tasks (Byrnes & Fox, 1998 ). This debate mirrors that in cognitive psychology ( Chapters 5 and 6 ) between the traditional view that knowledge is locally coded and the parallel distributed processing view that knowledge is coded not in one location but rather across many memory networks (Bowers, 2009 ).
There is research evidence to support both positions. Different parts of the brain have different functions, but functions are rarely, if ever, completely localized in one section of the brain. This is especially true for complex mental operations, which depend on several basic mental operations whose functions may be spread out in several areas. Neuroscience researchers have shown, for example, that creativity does not depend on any single mental process and is not localized in any one brain region (Dietrich & Kanso, 2010 ). Studies employing fMRI have demonstrated that neural representations of stimuli in the cortex often are widely distributed (Rissman & Wagner, 2012 ), thus lending support to the idea that neural networks are highly connected. “Nearly any task requires the participation of both hemispheres, but the hemispheres seem to process certain types of information more efficiently than others” (Byrnes & Fox, 1998 , p. 310). The practice of teaching to different sides of the brain (right brain, left brain) is not supported by empirical research. Some applications of these points on interconnectedness and lateralization are given in Application 2.1 .
Brain Research Methods
We know so much more today about the operation of the CNS than ever before, in part because of a convergence of interest in brain research among people in different fields. Historically, investigations of the brain were conducted primarily by researchers in medicine, the biological sciences, and psychology. Over the years, people in other fields have taken greater interest in brain research, believing that research findings would have implications for developments in their fields. Today we find educators, sociologists, social workers, counselors, government workers (especially those in the judicial system), and others interested in brain research. Funding for brain research also has increased, including by agencies that primarily fund non-brain–related research (e.g., education).
APPLICATION 2.1 Teaching to Both Brain Hemispheres
Brain research shows that much academic content is processed primarily in the left hemisphere, but that the right hemisphere processes context. A common educational complaint is that teaching is too focused on content with little attention to context. Focusing primarily on content produces student learning that may be unconnected to life events and largely meaningless. These points suggest that to make learning meaningful—and thereby involve both brain hemispheres and build more extensive neural connections—teachers should integrate content and context as much as possible.
Ms. Stone, a third-grade teacher, is doing a unit on butterflies. Children study material in books and on the Internet that shows pictures of different butterflies. To help connect this learning with context, she uses other activities. A local museum has a butterfly area, where butterflies live in a controlled environment. She takes her class to visit this so they can see the world of butterflies. A display is part of this exhibit, showing the different phases of a butterfly’s life. These activities help children connect characteristics of butterflies with contextual factors involving their development and environment.
Mr. Marshall, a high school history teacher, knows that studying historical events in isolation is not meaningful and can be boring. Over the years, many world leaders have sought global peace. When covering President Wilson’s work to establish the League of Nations with his U.S. history class, Mr. Marshall draws parallels to the United Nations and contemporary ways that governments try to eliminate aggression (e.g., nuclear disarmament) to put the League of Nations into a context. Through class discussions, he has students relate the goals, structures, and problems of the League of Nations to current events and discuss how the League of Nations set the precedent for the United Nations and for worldwide vigilance of aggression.
Learning about psychological processes in isolation from real situations often leaves students wondering how the processes apply to people. When Dr. Brown covers Piagetian processes (e.g., egocentrism) in her undergraduate educational psychology course, she has students in their internships document behaviors displayed by children that are indicative of those processes. She does the same thing with other units in the course to ensure that the content learning is linked with contexts (i.e., psychological processes have behavioral manifestations).
Another reason for our increased knowledge is that there have been tremendous advances in technology for conducting brain research. Many years ago, the only way to perform brain research was to conduct an autopsy. Although examining brains of deceased persons has yielded useful information, this type of research cannot determine how the brain functions and constructs knowledge. Research investigating live brain functioning is needed to develop understanding about how the brain changes during learning and uses learned information to produce actions.
Table 2.2 Methods used in brain research.
| Method | Description |
| X-ray | High-frequency electromagnetic waves used to determine abnormalities in solid structures (e.g., bones) |
| Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scan | Enhanced images (three dimensions) used to detect body abnormalities (e.g., tumors) |
| Electroencephalograph (EEG) | Measures electrical patterns caused by movement of neurons; used to investigate various brain disorders (e.g., language and sleep) |
| Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan | Assesses gamma rays produced by mental activity; provides overall picture of brain activity but limited by slow speed and participants’ ingestion of radioactive material |
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) | Radio waves cause brain to produce signals that are mapped; used to detect tumors, lesions, and other abnormalities |
| Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) | Performance of mental tasks fires neurons, causes blood flow, and changes magnetic flow; comparison with image of brain at rest shows responsible regions |
| Near-Infrared Optical Topography (NIR-OT) | Noninvasive technique for investigating higher-order brain functions in which near-infrared light is radiated on and penetrates the scalp, then is reflected by the cortex and passed back through the scalp |
Techniques that have yielded useful information are discussed below and summarized in Table 2.2 . These are ordered roughly from least to most sophisticated.
X-Ray.
An X-ray consists of high-frequency electromagnetic waves that can pass through nonmetallic objects where they are absorbed by body structures (Wolfe, 2010 ). The unabsorbed rays strike a photographic plate. Interpretation is based on light and dark areas (shades of gray). X-rays are two dimensional and are most useful for solid structures, such as determining whether you have broken a bone. They do not work particularly well in the brain because it is composed of soft tissue, although X-rays can determine damage to the skull (a bone structure).
CAT Scan.
The CAT (computerized or computed axial tomography) scan was developed in the early 1970s to increase the gradations in shades of gray produced by X-rays. CAT scans use X-ray technology but enhance the images from two to three dimensions. CAT scans are used to investigate tumors and other abnormalities, but, like X-rays, they do not provide detailed information about brain functioning.
EEG.
The EEG (electroencephalograph) is an imaging method that measures electrical patterns created by the movements of neurons (Wolfe, 2010 ). Electrodes placed on the scalp detect neural impulses passing through the skull. The EEG technology magnifies the signals and records them on a monitor or paper chart (brain waves). Frequency of brain waves (oscillations) increases during mental activity and decreases during sleep. EEGs have proven useful to image certain types of brain disorders (e.g., epilepsy, language), as well as to monitor sleep disorders (Wolfe, 2010 ). EEGs provide valuable temporal information through event-related potentials (see the section, Language Development), but they cannot detect the type of spatial information (i.e., where the activity occurs) that is needed to investigate learning in depth.
EEGs have been used to assess cognitive load ( Chapter 5 ), or the demands placed on students’ working memories while learning. Cognitive load is important; the goal is to reduce extraneous load not directly connected with learning so that learners can use their cognitive resources for learning. Newer wireless EEG technologies allow greater learner movements, reduce the size of the equipment, and can be applied to several learners at once (Antonenko, Paas, Grabner, & van Gog, 2010 ), thereby producing results more reflective of learners’ actual cognitive processes while learning.
PET Scan.
The PET (positron emission tomography) scan allows one to investigate brain activity while an individual performs tasks. The person is injected with a small dose of radioactive glucose, which the blood carries to the brain. While in the PET scanner the individual performs mental tasks. Those areas of the brain that become involved use more of the glucose and produce gamma rays, which are detected by the equipment. This leads to computerized color images (maps) being produced that show areas of activity.
Although PET scans represent an advance in brain imaging technology, there is a limit to how many sessions one can do and how many images can be produced at one time because the procedure requires ingesting radioactive material. Also, producing the images is a relatively slow process, so the speed with which neural activity occurs cannot be fully captured. Although the PET scan gives a good idea of overall brain activity, it does not show the specific areas of activity in sufficient detail (Wolfe, 2010 ).
MRI and fMRI.
Magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) and functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) are brain imaging techniques that address problems with PET scans. In an MRI, a beam of radio waves is fired at the brain. The brain is mostly water, which contains hydrogen atoms. The radio waves make the hydrogen atoms produce radio signals, which are detected by sensors and mapped onto a computerized image. The level of detail is superior to that of a CAT scan, and MRIs are commonly used to detect tumors, lesions and other abnormalities (Wolfe, 2010 ).
The fMRI works much like the MRI, except that as persons perform mental or behavioral tasks the parts of the brain responsible fire neurons, which cause more blood to flow to these regions. The blood flow changes the magnetic field so the signals become more intense. The fMRI scanner senses these changes and maps them onto a computerized image. This image can be compared to an image of the brain at rest to detect changes. The fMRI can capture brain activity as it occurs and where it occurs with second-to-second changes in blood flow (Pine, 2006 ); the fMRI can record four images per second (Wolfe, 2010 ). There is, however, some temporal disparity because blood flow changes can take several seconds to occur (Varma, McCandliss, & Schwartz, 2008 ).
Compared with other methods, the fMRI has many advantages. It does not require ingesting a radioactive substance. It works quickly and can measure activity precisely. It can record an image of a brain in a few seconds, which is much faster than other methods. And the fMRI can be repeated without problems.
Issues with brain technologies are that they must be used in artificial contexts (e.g., laboratories) with specialized equipment (e.g., CAT scan machines), which preclude their capturing learning in classrooms or other learning environments. These issues can be partially addressed by giving participants learning tasks during brain experiments or by subjecting them to the technology immediately after they have experienced different classroom contexts (Varma et al., 2008 ).
NIR-OT.
NIR-OT ( near-infrared optical topography ) is a newer noninvasive technique that has been used in brain research to investigate higher-level cognitive processing and learning. An optical fiber transmits a near-infrared light, which is radiated on the scalp. Some of that light penetrates to a depth of 30 mm. The cerebral cortex reflects the light and passes it back through the scalp, where it is detected by another optical fiber located near the point of penetration. NIR-OT measures concentrations of deoxygenated hemoglobin in the brain, which reflect brain activity (Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, 2007 ).
NIR-OT has many advantages over other methods. It can be employed in natural learning settings such as classrooms, homes, and workplaces. Its use has no mobility restrictions; participants move around freely. The NIR-OT analytical device is a mobile semiconductor. It can be used over longer periods of time with no serious side effects. And because the technology can be employed with multiple learners simultaneously, it can record brain changes as a consequence of social interactions.
The field of brain research is rapidly changing, and technologies are being developed and refined (e.g., wireless EEG, handheld NIR-OT integrated circuit). In the future, we can expect to see techniques of greater sophistication that will allow learners greater mobility in natural learning environments, which will further pinpoint brain processes while learning occurs. We now turn to the neurophysiology of learning, which addresses how the brain processes, integrates, and uses knowledge.
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY OF LEARNING
The section covering brain processing during learning uses as a frame of reference the information processing models discussed in Chapter 5 . Brain processing during learning is complex (as the opening scenario shows), and what follows covers only the central elements. Readers who want detailed information about learning and memory from a neurophysiological perspective should consult other sources (Byrnes, 2001 , 2012 ; Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, 2007 ; Jensen, 2005 ; Rose, 1998 ; Wolfe, 2010 ).
Information Processing System
As explained in Chapter 5 , key elements of the information processing system are sensory registers, working memory (WM), and long-term memory (LTM). The sensory registers receive inputs and hold them for a fraction of a second, after which they are discarded or channeled to WM. Most sensory inputs are discarded, since at any given time we are bombarded with multiple sensory inputs.
Earlier in this chapter we saw that all sensory inputs (except for smells) go directly to the thalamus, where at least some of them then are sent to the appropriate part of the cerebral cortex for processing (e.g., brain lobes that process the appropriate sensory information). But the inputs are not sent in the same form in which they were received; rather, they are sent as neural “perceptions” of those inputs. For example, an auditory stimulus received by the thalamus will be transformed into the neural equivalent of the perception of that stimulus. This perception also is responsible for matching information to what already is stored in memory, a process known as pattern recognition (see Chapter 5 ). Thus, if the visual stimulus is the classroom teacher, the perception sent to the cortex will match the stored representation of the teacher, and the stimulus will be recognized.
Part of what makes perception meaningful is that the brain’s reticular activating system filters information to exclude trivial information and focus on important material (Wolfe, 2010 ). This process is adaptive because if we tried to attend to every input, we would never be able to focus on anything. There are several factors that influence this filtering. Perceived importance, such as teachers announcing that material is important (e.g., will be tested), is apt to command students’ attention. Novelty attracts attention; the brain tends to focus on inputs that are novel or different from what might be expected. Another factor is intensity; stimuli that are louder, brighter, or more pronounced get more attention. Movement also helps to focus attention. Although these attentional systems largely operate unconsciously, it is possible to use these ideas for helping to focus students’ attention in the classroom, such as by using bright and novel visual displays. Applications of these ideas to learning settings are given in Application 2.2 .
APPLICATION 2.2 Arousing and Maintaining Students’ Attention
Cognitive neuroscience research shows that various environmental factors can arouse and maintain people’s attention. These factors include importance, novelty, intensity, and movement. As teachers plan instruction, they can determine ways to build these factors into their lessons and student activities.
Importance
Mrs. Peoples is teaching children to find main ideas in paragraphs. She wants children to focus on main ideas and not be distracted by interesting details. Children ask the question, “What is this story mostly about?” read the story, and ask the question again. They then pick out the sentence that best answers the question. Mrs. Peoples reviews the other sentences to show how they discuss details that may support the main idea but do not state it.
A middle school teacher is covering a unit on the state’s history. There are many details in the text, and the teacher wants students to focus on key events and persons who helped create the history. Before covering each section, the teacher gives students a list of key terms that includes events and persons. Students have to write a short explanatory sentence for each term.
Novelty
A fifth-grade teacher contacted an entomology professor at the local university who is an expert on cockroaches. The teacher took her class to his laboratory. There the students saw all types of cockroaches. The professor had various pieces of equipment that allowed students to see the activities of cockroaches firsthand, for example, how fast they can run and what types of things they eat.
A high school tennis coach obtained a ball machine that sends tennis balls out at various speeds and arcs, which players then attempt to return. Rather than have players practice repetitively returning the balls, the coach sets up each session as a match (player versus machine) without the serves. If a player can successfully return the ball sent out from the ball machine, then the player gets the point; if not, the machine earns the point. Scoring follows the standard format (love-15-30-40-game).
Intensity
Many elementary children have difficulty with regrouping in subtraction and incorrectly subtract the smaller from the larger number in each column. To help correct this error, Mr. Kincaid has students draw an arrow from the top number to the bottom number in each column before they subtract. If the number on top is smaller, students first draw an arrow from the top number in the adjacent column to the top number in the column being subtracted and then perform the appropriate regrouping. The use of arrows makes the order of operations more pronounced.
Ms. Lammaker wants her students to memorize the Gettysburg Address and be able to recite it with emphasis in key places. She demonstrates the reading while being accompanied at a low volume by an instrumental version of “The Battle Hymn of the Republic.” When she comes to a key part (e.g., “of the people, by the people, for the people”), she uses body and hand language and raises her inflection to emphasize certain words.
Movement
Studying birds and animals in books can be boring and does not capture their typical activities. An elementary teacher uses Internet sources and interactive videos to show birds and animals in their natural habitats. Students can see what their typical activities are as they hunt for food and prey, take care of their young, and move from place to place.
Dr. Tsauro, an elementary methods instructor, works with her interns on their movements while they are teaching and working with children. Dr. Tsauro has each of her students practice a lesson with other students. As they teach they are to move around and not simply stand or sit in one place at the front of the class. If they are using projected images, they are to move away from the screen. Then she teaches the students seat work monitoring, or how to move around the room effectively and check on students’ progress as they are engaged in tasks individually or in small groups.
Brain research has helped to clarify attentional processes and differences seen in students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Attentional problems seen in these children include not paying close attention to details, difficulty in sustaining attention, and being easily distracted (Byrnes, 2012 ). MRI and fMRI studies have implicated certain brain areas including the prefrontal cortex, thalamus, and the area where the temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes join. Many of these same areas also have been implicated in WM deficits, which, not surprisingly, many children with ADHD have. ADHD children also often show problems with planning, strategic behavior, and self-regulation, which are affected by prefrontal cortex activity (Byrnes, 2012 ).
In summary, sensory inputs are processed in the sensory memories portions of the brain, and those that are retained long enough are transferred to WM. WM seems to reside in multiple parts of the brain but primarily in the prefrontal cortex of the frontal lobe (Wolfe, 2010 ). As we will see in Chapter 5 , information is lost from WM in a few seconds unless it is rehearsed or transferred to LTM. For information to be retained there must be a neural signal to do so; that is, the information is deemed important and needs to be used.
The parts of the brain primarily involved in memory and information processing are the cortex and the medial temporal lobe (Wolfe, 2010 ). It appears that the brain processes and stores memories in the same structures that initially perceive and process information. At the same time, the particular parts of the brain involved in LTM vary depending on the type of information. In information processing theory, a distinction is made between declarative memory (facts, definitions, events) and procedural memory (procedures, strategies). Different parts of the brain are involved in using declarative and procedural information.
With declarative information, the sensory registers in the cerebral cortex (e.g., visual, auditory) receive the input and transfer it to the hippocampus and the nearby medial temporal lobe. Inputs are registered in much the same format as they appear (e.g., as a visual or auditory stimulus). The hippocampus is not the ultimate storage site; it acts as a processor and conveyor of inputs. As we will see in the next section, inputs that occur more often make stronger neural connections. With multiple activations, the memories form neural networks that become strongly embedded in the frontal and temporal cortexes. LTM for declarative information, therefore, appears to reside in the frontal and temporal cortex.
Much procedural information becomes automatized such that procedures can be accomplished with little or no conscious awareness (e.g., typing, riding a bicycle). Initial procedural learning involves the prefrontal cortex, the parietal lobe, and the cerebellum, which ensure that we consciously attend to the movements or steps and that these movements or steps are assembled correctly. With practice, these areas show less activity and other brain structures, such as the motor cortex, become more involved (Wolfe, 2010 ).
Observational learning is covered in Chapter 4 . Cognitive neuroscience supports the idea that much can be learned through observation (Bandura, 1986 ). Research shows that the cortical circuits involved in performing an action also respond when we observe someone else perform that action (van Gog, Paas, Marcus, Ayres, & Sweller, 2009 ).
With nonmotor procedures (e.g., decoding words, simple addition), the visual cortex is heavily involved. Repetition actually can change the neural structure of the visual cortex. These changes allow us to recognize visual stimuli (e.g., words, numbers) quickly without consciously having to process their meanings. As a consequence, many of these cognitive tasks become routinized. Conscious processing of information (e.g., stopping to think about what the reading passage means) requires extended activity in other parts of the brain.
But what if no meaning can be attached to an input? What if incoming information, although deemed important (such as by a teacher saying, “Pay attention”), cannot be linked with anything in memory? This situation necessitates creation of a new memory network, as discussed next.
Memory Networks
With repeated presentations of stimuli or information, neural networks can become strengthened such that the neural responses occur quickly. From a cognitive neuroscience perspective, learning involves forming and strengthening neural connections and networks (synaptic connections). This definition is quite similar to the definition of learning in current information processing theories ( Chapter 5 ).
Hebb’s Theory.
The process by which these synaptic connections and networks are formed has been the study of scientific investigations for many years. Hebb ( 1949 ) formulated a neurophysiological theory of learning that highlights the role of two cortical structures: cell assemblies and phase sequences. A cell assembly is a structure that includes cells in the cortex and subcortical centers (Hilgard, 1956 ). Basically a cell assembly is a neural counterpart of a simple association and is formed through frequently repeated stimulations. When the particular stimulation occurs again, the cell assembly is aroused. Hebb believed that when the cell assembly was aroused, it would facilitate neural responses in other systems, as well as motor responses.
Hebb only could speculate on how cell assemblies formed, because in his time the technology for examining brain processes was limited. Hebb felt that repeated stimulations led to the growth of synaptic knobs that increased the contact between axons and dendrites (Hilgard, 1956 ). With repeated stimulations, the cell assembly would be activated automatically, which facilitates neural processing.
A phase sequence is a series of cell assemblies. Cell assemblies that are stimulated repeatedly form a pattern or sequence that imposes some organization on the process. For example, we are exposed to multiple visual stimuli when we look at the face of a friend. One can imagine multiple cell assemblies, each of which covers a particular aspect of the face (e.g., left corner of the left eye, bottom of the right ear). By repeatedly looking at the friend’s face, these multiple cell assemblies are simultaneously activated and become connected to form a coordinated phase sequence that orders the parts (e.g., so we do not transpose the bottom of the right ear onto the left corner of the left eye). The phase sequence allows the coordinated whole to be meaningfully and consciously perceived.
Neural Connections.
Hebb’s ideas, despite being formulated over 65 years ago, are remarkably consistent with contemporary views on how learning occurs and memories are formed. As we will see in the next section on development, we are born with a large number of neural (synaptic) connections. Our experiences then work on this system. Connections are selected or ignored, strengthened or lost, and can be added and altered through new experiences (National Research Council, 2000 ).
It is noteworthy that the process of forming and strengthening synaptic connections (learning) changes the physical structure of the brain and alters its functional organization (National Research Council, 2000 ). Learning specific tasks produces localized changes in brain areas appropriate for the task, and these changes impose new organization on the brain. We tend to think that the brain determines learning, but in fact there is a reciprocal relationship because of the plasticity of the brain, or its capacity to change its structure and function as a result of experience (Begley, 2007 ; Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, 2007 ).
Although brain research continues on this topic, available information indicates that memory is not formed completely at the time initial learning occurs. Rather, memory formation is a continuous process in which neural connections are stabilized over time (Wolfe, 2010 ). The process of stabilizing and strengthening neural (synaptic) connections is known as consolidation (Wang & Morris, 2010 ). The hippocampus appears to play a key role in consolidation, despite the fact that the hippocampus is not where memories are stored.
What factors improve consolidation? As discussed in Chapter 5 , organization, rehearsal, and elaboration serve to impose structure. Research shows that the brain, far from being a passive receiver and recorder of information, plays an active role in storing and retrieving information (National Research Council, 2000 ).
In summary, it appears that stimuli or incoming information activates the appropriate brain portion and becomes encoded as synaptic connections. With repetition, these connections increase in number and become strengthened, which means they occur more automatically and communicate better with one another. Learning alters the specific regions of the brain involved in the tasks (National Research Council, 2000 ). Experiences are critical for learning, both with the environment (e.g., visual and auditory stimuli) and from one’s mental activities (e.g., thoughts).
Given that the brain imposes some structure on incoming information, it is important that this structure help facilitate memory. We might say, then, that simple consolidation and memory are not sufficient to guarantee long-term learning. Rather, instruction should play a key role by helping to impose a desirable structure on the learning, a point noted by Emma and Claudia in the opening scenario. Some applications of these ideas and suggestions for assisting learners to consolidate memories are given in Application 2.3 .
Language Learning
The interaction of multiple brain structures and synaptic connections is seen clearly in language learning and especially in reading. Although contemporary technologies allow researchers to investigate real-time brain functioning as individuals acquire and use language skills, much brain research on language acquisition and use has been conducted on persons who have suffered brain injury and experienced some degree of language loss. Such research is informative of what functions are affected by injury to particular brain areas, but this research does not address language acquisition and use in children’s developing brains.
APPLICATION 2.3 Teaching for Consolidation
Factors such as organization, rehearsal, and elaboration help the brain impose structure on learning and assist in the consolidation of neural connections in memory. Teachers can incorporate these ideas in various ways.
Organization
Ms. Standar’s students are studying the American Revolution. Rather than ask them to learn many dates, she creates a time line of key events and explains how each event led to subsequent events. Thus, she helps students chronologically organize the key events by relating them to events that they helped cause.
In her high school statistics course, Ms. Conwell organizes information about normally distributed data using the normal curve. On the curve she labels the mean and the standard deviations above and below the mean. She also labels the percentages of the area under portions of the curve so students can relate the mean and standard deviations to the percentages of the distribution. Using this visual organizer is more meaningful to students than is written information explaining these points.
Rehearsal
Mr. Luongo’s elementary students will perform a Thanksgiving skit for parents. Students must learn their lines and their movements. He breaks the skit into subparts and works on one part each day, then gradually merges the parts into a longer sequence. Students thus get plenty of rehearsal, including several rehearsals of the entire skit.
Mr. Gomez has his ninth-grade English students rehearse with their vocabulary words. For each word list, students write the word and the definition and then write a sentence using the word. Students also write short essays every week, in which they try to incorporate at least five vocabulary words they have studied this year. This rehearsal helps to build memory networks with word spellings, meanings, and usage.
Elaboration
Elaboration is the process of expanding information to make it meaningful. Elaboration can help to build memory networks and link them with other relevant ones.
Mr. Jackson knows that students find precalculus difficult to link with other knowledge. Mr. Jackson surveys his students to determine their interests and what other courses they are taking. Then he relates precalculus concepts to these interests and courses. For example, for students taking physics he links principles of motion and gravity to conic sections (e.g., parabolas) and quadratic equations.
Ms. Kay’s middle school students are engaged in applying critical thinking to issues of personal responsibility. Students read vignettes and then discuss them. Rather than letting them simply agree or disagree with the story character’s choices, she forces them to elaborate by addressing questions such as: How did this choice affect other people? What might have been the consequences if the character had made a different choice? What would you have done and why?
Brain trauma studies have shown that the left side of the brain’s cerebral cortex is central to reading and that the posterior (back) cortical association areas of the left hemisphere are critical for understanding and using language and for normal reading (Vellutino & Denckla, 1996 ). Reading dysfunctions often are symptoms of left posterior cortical lesions. Autopsies of brains of adolescents and young adults with a history of reading difficulties have shown structural abnormalities in the left hemispheres. Reading dysfunctions also are sometimes associated with brain lesions in the anterior (front) lobes—the area that controls speech—although the evidence much more strongly associates it with posterior lobe abnormalities. Since these results come from studies of persons who knew how to read (to varying degrees) and then lost some or all of the ability, we can conclude that the primarily left-sided areas of the brain associated with language and speech are critical for the maintenance of reading.
Keep in mind, however, that there is no one central area of the brain involved in reading. Rather, the various aspects of reading (e.g., letter and word identification, syntax, semantics) involve many localized and specialized brain structures and synaptic connections that must be coordinated to successfully read (Vellutino & Denckla, 1996 ). The section that follows examines how these interconnections seem to develop in normal readers and in those with reading problems. The idea is that coordinated reading requires the formation of neural assemblies , or collections of neural groups that have formed synaptic connections with one another (Byrnes, 2001 ). Neural assemblies seem conceptually akin to Hebb’s cell assemblies and phase sequences.
Results from neuroscience research show that specific brain regions are associated with orthographic, phonological, semantic, and syntactic processing required for reading (Byrnes, 2001 ). Orthographic (e.g., letters, characters) processing depends heavily on the primary visual area. Phonological processing (e.g., phonemes, syllables) is associated with the superior (upper) temporal lobes. Semantic processing (e.g., meanings) is associated with Broca’s area in the frontal lobe and areas in the medial (middle) temporal lobe in the left hemisphere. Syntactic processing (e.g., sentence structure) also seems to occur in Broca’s area.
Noted earlier were two key areas in the brain involved in language. Broca’s area plays a major role in the production of grammatically correct speech. Wernicke’s area (located in the left temporal lobe below the lateral fissure) is critical for proper word choice and elocution. Persons with deficiencies in Wernicke’s area may use an incorrect word but one close in meaning (e.g., say “knife” when “fork” was intended).
Language and reading require the coordination of the various brain areas. Such coordination occurs through bundles of nerve fibers that connect the language areas to each other and to other parts of the cerebral cortex on both sides of the brain (Geschwind, 1998 ). The corpus callosum is the largest collection of such fibers, but there are others. Damage to or destruction of these fibers prevents the communication in the brain needed for proper language functioning, which can result in a language disorder. Brain researchers explore how dysfunctions operate and which brain functions continue in the presence of damage.
This topic is considered further in the following section, because it is intimately linked with brain development. For educators, knowing how the brain develops is important because developmental changes must be considered in planning instruction to ensure student learning.
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
To this point we have focused on mature CNS functioning. Many educators, however, work with preschoolers, children, and adolescents. The topic of brain development is of interest not only in its own right but also because the educational implications for teaching and learning vary depending on the level of brain development. In the opening scenario, Bryan notes the importance of educators understanding brain development. This section discusses influential factors on development, the course of development, sensitive periods in development, the role of development in language acquisition and use, and the influence of technology.
Influential Factors
Although human brains are structurally similar, there are differences among individuals. Five influences on brain development are genetics, environmental stimulation, nutrition, steroids, and teratogens (Byrnes, 2001 ; Table 2.3 ). These influences begin during fetal development (Paul, 2010 ).
Genetics.
The human brain differs in size and composition from those of other animals. Although the difference between the human genome and that of our closest animal relative (the chimpanzee) is only 1.23% (Lemonick & Dorfman, 2006 ), that difference and other genetic variations produce a species that can design and build bridges, compose music, write novels, solve complex equations, and so forth.
Human brains have a similar genetic structure, but they nonetheless differ in size and structure. Studies of monozygotic (one-egg) twins show that they sometimes develop brains that are structurally different (Byrnes, 2001 ). Genetic instructions determine the size, structure, and neural connectivity of the brain. Most of the time these differences yield normally functioning brains, but brain research continues to identify how certain genetic differences produce abnormalities.
Environmental Stimulation.
· Table 2.3 Factors affecting brain development.· ■ Genetics · ■ Environmental stimulation · ■ Nutrition · ■ Steroids · ■ Teratogens |
Brain development requires stimulation from the environment. Prenatal development sets the stage for learning by developing a neural circuitry that can receive and process stimuli and experiences. Those experiences further shape the circuitry by adding and reorganizing synapses. For example, pregnant women who talk and sing to their babies may, through their speech and singing, help to establish neural connections in the babies (Wolfe, 2010 ). Brain development lags when experiences are missing or minimal. Although there are certain critical periods when stimulation can have profound effects (Jensen, 2005 ), research suggests that stimulation is important during the entire life span to ensure continued brain development.
Nutrition.
Lack of good nutrition can have major effects on brain development, and the particular effects depend on when the poor nutrition occurs (Byrnes, 2001 ). Prenatal malnutrition, for example, slows the production and growth of neurons and glial cells. A critical period is between the 4th and 7th months of gestation when most brain cells are produced (Jensen, 2005 ). Later malnutrition slows how quickly cells grow in size and acquire a myelin sheath. Although the latter problem can be corrected with proper diet, the former cannot because too few cells have developed. This is why pregnant women are advised to avoid drugs, alcohol, and tobacco; maintain a good diet; and avoid stress (stress also causes problems for a developing fetus).
Steroids.
Steroids refer to a class of hormones that affect several functions, including sexual development and stress reactions (Byrnes, 2001 ). Steroids can affect brain development in various ways. The brain has receptors for hormones. Such hormones as estrogen and cortisol will be absorbed and will potentially change brain structure during prenatal development. Excessive stress hormones can cause neurons to die. Researchers also have explored whether gender and sexual orientation differences arise in part due to differences in steroids. Although the evidence on the role of steroids in brain development is less conclusive than that for nutrition, steroids have the potential to affect the brain.
Teratogens.
Teratogens are foreign substances (e.g., alcohol, viruses) that can cause abnormalities in a developing embryo or fetus (Byrnes, 2001 ). A substance is considered to be a teratogen only if research shows that a not unrealistically high level can affect brain development. For example, caffeine in small amounts may not be a teratogen, but it may become one when intake is higher. Teratogens can have effects on the development and interconnections of neurons and glial cells. In extreme cases (e.g., the rubella virus), they can cause birth defects.
Phases of Development
During prenatal development, the brain grows in size and structure, as well as in number of neurons, glial cells, and neural connections (synapses). Prenatal brain development is rapid, because it occurs in 9 months and most cells are produced between months 4 and 7 (Jensen, 2005 ). Cells travel up the neural tube, migrate to various parts of the brain, and form connections. It is estimated that at its peak, the embryo generates a quarter of a million brain cells a minute.
At birth the brain has over a million connections, which represent about 60% of the peak number of synapses that will develop over the lifetime (Jensen, 2005 ). Given these numbers, it is little wonder that prenatal development is so important. Changes that occur then can have far-reaching and permanent effects.
Brain development also occurs rapidly in infants. By the age of 2 years, a child will have as many synapses as an adult, and by the age of 3 years the child will have billions more than an adult. Young children’s brains are dense and have many complex neural connections, more than at any other time in life (Trawick-Smith, 2003 ).
In fact, young children have too many synapses. About 60% of babies’ energy is used by their brains; in comparison, adult brains require only 20–25% (Brunton, 2007 ). With development, children and adolescents lose far more brain synapses than they gain. By the time adolescents turn 18, they have lost about half of their infant synapses. Brain connections that are not used or needed simply disappear. This “use it or lose it” strategy is desirable because connections that are used will be reinforced and consolidated, whereas those not used will be permanently lost.
By the age of 5 years, the child’s brain has acquired a language and developed sensory motor skills and other competencies. The rapid changes of the first years have slowed, but the brain continues to add synapses. Neural networks are becoming more complex in their linkages. This process continues throughout development.
As noted by Bryan in the opening vignette, major changes occur during the teenage years when the brain undergoes structural alterations (Jensen, 2005 ). The frontal lobes, which handle abstract reasoning and problem solving, are maturing, and the parietal lobes increase in size. The prefrontal cortex, which controls judgments and impulses, matures slowly (Shute, 2009 ). There also are changes in neurotransmitters—especially dopamine —that can leave the brain more sensitive to the pleasurable effects of drugs and alcohol. There is a thickening of brain cells and massive reorganizations of synapses, which makes this a key time for learning. The “use it or lose it” strategy results in brain regions becoming strengthened through practice (e.g., practicing the piano thickens neurons in the brain region controlling the fingers; Wallis, 2004 ).
Given these widespread changes in their brains, it is not surprising that teenagers often make poor decisions and engage in high-risk behaviors involving drugs, alcohol, and sex. Instructional strategies need to take these changes into account. Applications of these ideas to instruction are given in Application 2.4 .
Sensitive Periods
Some books on child rearing stress critical periods (e.g., the first 2–3 years of life), such that if certain experiences do not occur then, the child’s development will suffer permanently. There is some truth to this statement, although the claim is overstated. It is more accurate to label them sensitive periods , which means that development proceeds well then but that further development can occur later. Five aspects of brain development for which there seem to be sensitive periods are language, emotions, sensory motor development, auditory development, and vision (Jensen, 2005 ; Table 2.4 ). Language and emotions are discussed elsewhere in this chapter; the remaining three are covered next.
Sensory Motor Development.
The systems associated with vision, hearing, and motor movements develop extensively through experiences during the first two years of life. The vestibular system in the inner ear influences the senses of movement and balance and affects other sensory systems. There is evidence that inadequate vestibular stimulation among infants and toddlers can lead to learning problems later (Jensen, 2005 ).
APPLICATION 2.4 Teaching and Learning with Teenagers
The rapid and extensive changes that occur in teenagers’ brains suggest that we not view teens as smaller versions of adults (or as young children either). Some suggestions for instruction with teens based on brain research follow.
Give Simple and Straightforward Directions
Mr. Glenn, who teaches 10th-grade English, knows that his students’ memories may not accommodate many ideas at once. For each novel students read, they must do a literary analysis that comprises several sections (e.g., plot summary, literary devices, analysis of a major character). Mr. Glenn reviews these sections carefully. For each, he explains what it should include and shows a sample or two.
Use Models
Students process information well when it is presented in multiple modes—visual, auditory, tactile. In her chemistry class, Ms. Carchina wants to ensure that students understand laboratory procedures. She explains and demonstrates each procedure she wants students to learn, then has students work in pairs to perform the procedure. As students work, she circulates among them and offers corrective feedback as needed.
Ensure That Students Develop Competence
Motivation theory and research show that students want to avoid appearing incompetent ( Chapter 9 ). This is especially true during the teenage years when their senses of self are developing. Ms. Patterson teaches calculus, which is difficult for some students. Through quizzes, homework, and class work she knows which students are having difficulty. Ms. Patterson holds review sessions before school every day for her students, and she makes a point to advise students having difficulty to attend those sessions.
Incorporate Decision Making
The rapid development occurring in teens’ brains means that their decision making often is flawed. They may base decisions on incomplete information or what they think will please their friends and fail to think through potential consequences. Mr. Manley incorporates much decision making and discussions of consequences into his marine science classes. Students study topics such as global warming and water pollution, and he presents them with case studies that they discuss (e.g., a ship’s captain who wants to dump garbage at sea). He asks students questions that address topics such as the potential consequences of possible actions and other ways that the problem could be addressed.
Often, however, infants and toddlers are not in stimulating environments, especially those who spend much time in day care centers that provide mostly caregiving. Many children also do not receive sufficient stimulation outside of those settings, because they spend too much time in car seats, walkers, or in front of televisions. Allowing youngsters movement and even rocking them provides stimulation. About 60% of infants and toddlers spend an average of one to two hours per day watching television or videos (Courage & Setliff, 2009 ). Although young children can learn from these media, they do not do so easily. Children’s comprehension and learning are enhanced when parents watch with them and provide descriptions and explanations (Courage & Setliff, 2009 ).
· Table 2.4 Aspects of brain development having sensitive periods.· ■ Sensory motor · ■ Auditory · ■ Visual · ■ Emotional · ■ Language |
Auditory Development.
The child’s first 2 years are ideal for auditory development. By the age of 6 months, infants can discriminate most sounds in their environments (Jensen, 2005 ). In the first 2 years, children’s auditory systems mature in terms of range of sounds heard and ability to discriminate among sounds. Problems in auditory development can lead to problems in learning language, because much language acquisition depends on children hearing the speech of others in their environments.
Vision.
Vision develops largely during the first year of life and especially after the fourth month. Synaptic density in the visual system increases dramatically, including the neural connections regulating the perception of color, depth, movement, and hue. Proper visual development requires a visually rich environment where infants can explore objects and movements. Television and movies are poor substitutes. Although they provide color and movement, they are two dimensional, and the developing brain needs depth. The action shown on television and in the movies often occurs too rapidly for infants to focus on properly (Jensen, 2005 ).
In short, the first 2 years of life are important for proper development of the sensory motor, visual, and auditory systems, and development of these systems is aided when infants are in a rich environment that allows them to experience movements, sights, and sounds. At the same time, brain development is a lifelong process; brains need stimulation after the age of 2 years. The brain continually is adding, deleting, and reorganizing synaptic connections and changing structurally. Although researchers have shown that certain aspects of brain development occur more rapidly at certain times, individuals of all ages benefit from stimulating environments.
Language Development
Previously we saw how certain functions associated with language operate in the brain. Although researchers have explored brain processes with different types of content involving various mental abilities, a wealth of research has been conducted on language acquisition and use. This is a key aspect of cognitive development and one that has profound implications for learning.
As noted earlier, much brain research on language has been conducted on persons who have suffered brain injury and experienced some degree of language loss. Such research is informative about what functions are affected by injury to particular brain areas, but these research investigations do not address language acquisition and use in children’s developing brains.
Brain studies of developing children, while less common, have offered important insights into the development of language functions. Studies often have compared normally developing children with those who have difficulties learning in school. In place of the surgical techniques often used on brain-injured or deceased patients, these studies employ less-invasive techniques such as those described earlier in this chapter. Researchers often measure event-related potentials (or evoked potentials ), which are changes in brain waves that occur when individuals anticipate or engage in various tasks (Halliday, 1998 ).
Differences in event-related potentials reliably differentiate among below-average, average, and above-average children (Molfese et al., 2006 ). Children who are normally developing show extensive bilateral and anterior (front) cortical activation and accentuated left-sided activations in language and speech areas. In contrast to reading maintenance, it appears that reading development also depends on anterior activation, perhaps on both sides of the brain (Vellutino & Denckla, 1996 ). Other research shows that developing children who experience left-sided dysfunction apparently compensate to some extent by learning to read using the right hemisphere. The right hemisphere may be able to support and sustain an adequate level of reading, but it seems critical for this transition to occur prior to the development of language competence. Such assumption of language functions by the right hemisphere may not occur among individuals who have sustained left-hemisphere damage as adults.
A sensitive period in language development seems to be between birth and age 5. During this time, children’s brains develop most of their language capabilities. There is a rapid increase in vocabulary between the ages of 19 and 31 months (Jensen, 2005 ). The development of these language capabilities is enhanced when children are in language-rich environments where parents and others talk with children. This sensitive period for language development overlaps the one for auditory development between birth and age 2.
In addition to this period, language development also seems to be part of a natural process with a timetable. We have seen how the auditory and visual systems develop capacities to supply the input for the development of language. A parallel process may occur in language development for the capacity to perceive phonemes , which are the smallest units of speech sounds (e.g., the “b” and “p” sounds in “bet” and “pet”). Children learn or acquire phonemes when they are exposed to them in their environments; if phonemes are absent in their environments, then children do not acquire them. Thus, there may be a sensitive period in which synaptic connections are properly formed, but only if the environment provides the inputs. In short, children’s brains may be “ready” (“prewired”) to learn various aspects of language at different times in line with their levels of brain development (National Research Council, 2000 ).
Importantly for education, instruction can help to facilitate language development. Different areas of the brain must work together to learn language, such as the areas involved in seeing, hearing, speaking, and thinking (Byrnes, 2001 ; National Research Council, 2000 ). Acquiring and using language is a coordinated activity. People listen to speech and read text, think about what was said or what they read, and compose sentences to write or speak. This coordinated activity implies that language development should benefit from instruction that coordinates these functions, that is, experiences that require vision, hearing, speech, and thinking (see Application 2.5 ).
APPLICATION 2.5 Facilitating Language Development
Although birth to age 5 represents a sensitive period for the development of language, its acquisition and use are lifelong activities. Teachers can help develop the language skills of students of all ages. Instruction ideally should coordinate the component functions of seeing, hearing, thinking, and speaking.
A kindergarten teacher works with her students on learning phonemes. To help develop recognition of phonemes in “__at” words (e.g., mat, hat, pat, cat, sat), she has each of these words printed on a slide. The phoneme is printed in red and the “at” appears in black. She gives students practice by showing a slide, asking them to say the word, and then asking individual students to use the word in a sentence.
Mrs. O’Neal teaches her third graders animal names and spellings. She has a picture of each animal and its printed name on a slide, along with two to three interesting facts about the animal (e.g., where it lives, what it eats). She has children pronounce the animal’s name several times and spell it aloud, then write a short sentence using the word. This is especially helpful for animal names that are difficult to pronounce or spell (e.g., giraffe, hippopotamus).
Ms. Kaiton, a middle school mathematics teacher, is working with her students on place value. Some students are having a lot of difficulty and cannot correctly order numbers from smallest to largest (e.g., .007, 7/100, seven-tenths, 7). Ms. Kaiton has three large magnetic number lines, each ranging from 0 to 1 and broken into units of tenths, hundredths, and thousandths. She asked students to put a magnetic bar on the appropriate number line (e.g., put the bar on the 7 of the hundredths line for 7/100). Then she broke students into small groups and gave them problems, and asked them to use number lines or pie charts to show where numbers fell so they could properly order them. Next she worked with them to convert all numbers to a common denominator (e.g., 7/10 = 70/100) and to place the markers on the same board (e.g., thousandths) so they could see the correct order.
Students in Mr. Bushnell’s tenth-grade class learn about key documents in U.S. history (e.g., Declaration of Independence, Constitution, Bill of Rights). To appeal to multiple senses, he brought facsimile copies of these documents to class. Then he had students engage in role-playing where they read selections from the documents. Students were taught how to put emphasis at appropriate places while reading to make these passages especially distinctive.
Many students in Dr. Hua’s child development course have difficulty comprehending and correctly using psychological terms (e.g., assimilation, satiation, zone of proximal development). He obtains videos that demonstrate these concepts (e.g., child being administered Piagetian tasks) and gives students case studies that exemplify concepts, which students discuss in class. For example, in a case study illustrating satiation a student is repeatedly praised by a teacher. Finally the student becomes satiated with praise and tells the teacher that she does not always have to tell him that he did so well.
In summary, different areas of the brain participate in language development in normally developing children, although left-hemisphere contributions typically are more prominent than right-hemisphere ones. Over time, language functions are heavily subsumed by the left hemisphere. In particular, reading skill seems to require left-hemisphere control. But more research is needed before we fully understand the relationships between brain functions and developing language and reading competencies.
Like other aspects of brain development, language acquisition reflects the interaction between heredity and environment discussed in Chapter 1 . The cultural experiences of infants and children will determine to a large extent which brain synapses they retain. If the culture stresses motor functions, then these should be strengthened; whereas if the culture stresses cognitive processes, then these will ascend. If young children are exposed to a rich linguistic environment stressing oral and written language, then their language acquisition will develop more rapidly than will the language capabilities of children in impoverished environments.
The implication for facilitating early brain development is to provide rich experiences for infants and young children, stressing perceptual, motor, and language functions. This is especially critical in the first years of life. These experiences should enhance the formation of synaptic connections and networks. There also is evidence that babies who have suffered in utero (e.g., from mothers’ drug or alcohol abuse), as well as those with developmental disabilities (e.g., retardation, autism), benefit from intervention in the first three years (Shore, 1997 ).
Influence of Technology
We have seen that the brain exhibits neuroplasticity, which means its neural connections are formed, strengthened, and weakened, based on experiences. In recent years the rapid growth of technology and its influx into everyday lives have created a new set of experiences that heretofore were not present. We might ask how technology affects brain development.
Before addressing this question, we should consider how technology is used, especially by students. We live in an age of technological multitasking! There are desktop and laptop computers, phones, tablets, and other personal devices. It is not uncommon to use multiple devices simultaneously. A student may be using the Internet on a computer while e-mailing on a personal device and texting on a phone. The student likely rapidly shifts back and forth between these applications. For any single application, technology may present us with much information rapidly. Internet use, for example, is based on quick and often superficial reading and rapid following of links. Texting is limited to short messages such that one can send and receive several in a few minutes.
Living in an online environment can promote cursory reading, hurried and distracted thinking, and superficial learning (Carr, 2011 ). It is possible to think deeply and take one’s time on the Internet, but its structure does not encourage it. The Internet delivers sensory and cognitive stimuli that tend to be repetitive, interactive, and intensive. Users repeat the same or similar actions (e.g., following links) at high speed and often in response to cues. Some cues require physical responses (e.g., type, rotate screen), but others provide a lot of visual and auditory input. These activities tend to be rewarded; clicking links or answering messages gives quick responses and new inputs. The rapid feedback that often brings rewards encourages continued use.
As we will see in Chapter 5 , our attention to stimuli is a limited resource. Heavy use of technology can bombard our capacity to attend and overload it. Stimuli attended to are transferred to working memory for processing. When multiple stimuli impinge, working memory can become overloaded due to the high cognitive load ( Chapter 5 ). This situation means that most information is lost since it is not adequately processed or connected with information in long-term memory. As Carr ( 2011 ) notes, the Internet seizes our attention only to scatter it. The resulting learning can be minimal. Information not rehearsed is lost, and it is easy not to rehearse in an online environment. Further, the knowledge that is retained may not be well connected with itself or knowledge in long-term memory.
From a neuroscience perspective, different cognitive activities show different patterns of brain activity. Small, Moody, Siddarth, and Bookheimer ( 2009 ) found differences in brain activity between book reading (which requires sustained attention and deep thought) and Internet use. Book reading led to activity in brain areas associated with language, memory, and visual processes. Web surfing, conversely, resulted in more brain activity in prefrontal areas associated with decision making and problem solving. Further, such brain “rewiring” can occur with only a few hours of online use (Small & Vorgan, 2008 ).
These tasks work at cross purposes. Evaluating links and making navigational choices requires mental coordination and decision making, which distract the brain from interpreting text or other information and thereby impede comprehension and retention. Although one can read deeply online, it is not easily compatible with doing so without distractions. Deep reading requires deep thinking during which we eliminate distractions and quiet the problem-solving functions of the frontal lobes. When multiple devices are used at once, the distractions increase, and the learning that occurs is apt to be fragmented.
There is, of course, nothing wrong with browsing and scanning. These are useful skills in many endeavors, including those outside of online environments. We often do not need to read or think deeply; rather, we are interested in getting the gist of information or browsing quickly to find the resources we desire. Neuroscience evidence shows benefits of Web browsing on the development of visual-spatial skills (Carr, 2011 ). As we work in a busy online environment, our neural circuits devoted to scanning, skimming, and multitasking are expanding and strengthening. But the downside is that if browsing and scanning become dominant modes—as opposed to operations we use less often—synapses devoted to thinking deeply and sustaining concentration may be weakening. From an evolutionary perspective, we might say that success in online environments promotes a survival of the busiest!
Another point to keep in mind is that long-term memories require consolidation of events that have been attended to and processed in working memory. Consolidation takes time to form strong memories. When too much information impinges rapidly, it is not properly consolidated and linked with existing knowledge in long-term memory. To grow, strengthen, and maintain synapses requires that students devote some time away from the rapid pace of online environments and think about what they have been reading. Consolidation continues to occur after exposure to information stops.
The use of technology is neither inherently good nor bad (Wolfe, 2010 ). An educational implication of neuroscience research is that to develop different cognitive brain functions requires students to engage in different activities. Scanning, problem solving, and decision making are useful skills, but so are reflective and meditative thinking and evaluating and interpreting information. Teachers can develop instructional activities that require different skills and ensure that students do not spend too much time engaged in Web surfing and not enough on assembling knowledge into a coherent whole.
MOTIVATION AND EMOTIONS
Researchers have investigated how brain processes link with many different cognitive functions. But they also have been concerned with the brain processes involved with noncognitive functions, such as motivation and emotions. These functions are discussed in turn.
Motivation
In Chapter 9 , motivation is defined as the process whereby goal-directed activities are instigated and sustained. Motivated actions include choosing to engage in tasks, expending physical and mental effort, persisting in the face of difficulties, and achieving well. Chapter 9 also discusses various processes that have been hypothesized to affect motivation, such as goals, self-efficacy, needs, values, and perceptions of control.
Contemporary theories posit that motivational processes have cognitive components. Self-efficacy , for example, refers to perceived capabilities to learn or perform behaviors at designated levels. Self-efficacy is a cognitive belief. As such, it likely has a neural representation of the kind discussed in this chapter. Although research is lacking in this area, we might expect that self-efficacy beliefs are represented in the brain as a neural network that links the domain being studied (e.g., fractions, reading novels) with current sensory input. Other motivational processes also may be represented in synaptic networks, as might processes involved in self-regulated learning ( Chapter 10 ). More neurophysiological research on motivation and self-regulation variables would help to bridge the gap between education and neuroscience.
From a cognitive neuroscience perspective, there are at least two kinds of neural counterparts of motivation. These involve rewards and motivational states.
Rewards.
Rewards have a long history in motivation research. They are key components of behavior theories ( Chapter 3 ), which contend that behaviors that are reinforced (rewarded) tend to be repeated in the future. Motivation represents an increase in the rate, intensity, or duration of behavior.
Cognitive and constructivist theories of motivation postulate that it is the expectation of reward, rather than the reward itself, that motivates behavior. Rewards can sustain motivation when they are given contingent on competent performance or progress in learning. Motivation may decline over time when people view the rewards as controlling their behavior (i.e., they are performing a task so that they can earn a reward). Further, new learning can occur rapidly when events run contrary to expectancies. Previous neural connections become disrupted and new ones form to reflect the new contingencies between responses and outcomes (Tucker & Luu, 2007 ).
The brain seems to have a system for processing rewards (Jensen, 2005 ), but, like other brain functions, this one is complex. Many brain structures are involved, including the hypothalamus, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala. The brain produces its own rewards in the form of opiates that result in a natural high. This effect suggests that the brain may be predisposed toward experiencing and sustaining pleasurable outcomes. The expectation that one may receive a reward for competent or improved performance can activate this pleasure network, which produces the neurotransmitter dopamine. It may be that the brain stores, as part of a neural network, the expectation of reward for performing the action. In fact, dopamine can be produced by the expectation of pleasure (anticipation of reward), as well as by the pleasure itself. Dopamine increases when there is a discrepancy between expected and realized rewards (e.g., one expects a large reward but receives a small one). The dopamine system can help people adjust their expectations, which is a type of learning (Varma et al., 2008 ).
It should be noted that addictive substances (e.g., drugs, alcohol) also increase the amount of dopamine (Lemonick, 2007b ), which raises feelings of pleasure. Addiction may occur when repetitive use of addictive substances disrupts the normal balance of synaptic connections that control rewards, cognition, and memory.
The brain also can become satiated with rewards such that the expectation of a reward or the receipt of a reward does not produce as much pleasure as previously. It is possible that the expectation of a larger reward is needed to produce dopamine, and if that is not forthcoming, then the effect may extinguish. This point may help explain why a particular reward can lose its power to motivate over time.
Research is needed on whether other cognitive motivators—such as goals and the perception of learning progress—also trigger dopamine responses and thus have neuro-physiological referents. Since dopamine production is idiosyncratic, the same level of reward or expectation of reward will not motivate all students uniformly. This point suggests that additional brain processes are involved in motivation, which has practical implications for teaching. Teachers who plan to use rewards must learn what motivates each student and establish a reward system that can accommodate changes in students’ preferences.
Motivational States.
Motivational states are complex neural connections that include emotions, cognitions, and behaviors (Jensen, 2005 ). States change with conditions. If it has been several hours since we have eaten, then we likely are in a hunger state. We may be in a worried state if problems are pressing on us. If things are going well, we may be in a happy state. Similarly, a motivational state may include emotions, cognitions, and behaviors geared toward learning. Like other states, a motivational state is an integrated combination of mind, body, and behavior that ultimately links with a web-like network of synaptic connections.
Resilience
- Type of paper Essay (Any Type)
- Subject Psychology
- Number of pages 3
- Format of citation APA
- Number of cited resources 4
- Type of service Writing
This is a short essay where you need 4 paragraphs and you present a convincing argument Paragraph 1 is your opening. You present the basic question (DO NOT QUOTE THE QUESTION WE GIVE YOU) and inform the reader what your position will be and how you will construct your argument (with evidence of course) to convince the reader your position is right. It should be about 100 words The BODY Paragraph 2 is where you present your 1st type of evidence. Ideally you present the same KIND of evidence from a couple of different studies/sources that help you make your case. It should be about 300 words Paragraph 3 is where you present a 2nd type of evidence. Ideally you present the same KIND of evidence from a couple of different studies that help you make your case and add to what you presented in the previous paragraph by coming at it from a bit of a different direction. So the supporting evidence here should be distinctly different from your previous evidence paragraph. It should be about 300 words Paragraph 4 is your Conclusion. This is where you outline what your position was, how you presented convincing evidence and this leads you to make a strong conclusion about the topic. It should be about 100 words References: you MUST use APA format which means proper in text citations and a section at the end of the paper called References where you provide the full details of the cited sources in APA format. Your Burton writing guide in very valuable for this as a guide to referencing in APA but the web has many good sources on it. Your References section is NOT included in the word count. but everything above it IS included (including in text citations, the title, etc.) YOUR TASK: There are lots of different types of essay. In Psyc 1010 we ask students to write an “Argument” essay where you must try to disprove some statement or position. We do this because in SCIENCE we always try to disprove a theory which is much easier than trying to PROVE a theory (which usually takes hundreds of years). To DISPROVE a theory, all you have to do is find evidence against it. It helps if you find more than a single bit of evidence though. So what do you have to disprove? Disprove this statement “Human Resilience is mostly determined by NATURE. That is, it is based on Genetic factors such as intelligence and personality (temperament). So people cannot LEARN to be resilient” This essay topic relates to almost all areas of Psyc 1010 but specifically to the developmental and individual differences parts and of course we had a lab on resilience. To answer the question you need to disprove the statement using good academic research sources. You can disprove the statement by either disproving the 1st part of the statement (Resilience is determined by Nature (ie genetics)) OR you can disprove the 2nd part (Resilience can’t be learned).
Enhancing Resilience in Children: A Proactive Approach
Mary Karapetian Alvord and Judy Johnson Grados Alvord, Baker & Associates, LLC
Many clinical practitioners today are interested in helping children be more resilient. The authors briefly review the literature and identify protective factors that are related to or foster resilience in children. After discussing individual and family intervention strategies currently in use, the authors present a practical, proactive, resilience-based model that clinicians may use in a group intervention setting. The model entails interactive identification of protective factors with children, free play and behavioral rehearsal, training in relaxation and self-control techniques, practice in generalizing skills acquired, and active parent involvement. Implications of this group intervention model are discussed.
Keywords: resilience, children, social skills, groups, cognitive– behavioral therapy
Vala is a 16-year-old Russian girl who first came to our practice at age 6. Neglected as a child, separated from her younger sister, and taken to an orphanage following her mother’s suicide, she was adopted by an American family and came to this country. The tribulations she experienced were extreme. However, because of her intelligence, easygoing temperament, and other personal strengths, as well as loving support of family and friends and a positive school environment, she is functioning well today and appears to be successful and happy.
Many children encounter fewer and less severe traumatic expe- riences than did Vala. Yet they do experience the inevitable stresses and adversities in life that may challenge their healthy development and successful functioning. In the past three decades, a group of children have been identified in the research who appear to have fared well despite exposure to severe adversity. These children, who have been referred to as stress-resistant, invulner- able, and, more recently, resilient, were found to possess certain strengths and to have benefited from protective influences that helped them to overcome adverse conditions and to thrive. As practitioners, we must understand what environmental factors place children at risk and what protective factors may be fostered to enhance and strengthen resilience in children.
In this article we define resilience and provide an overview of the literature and recent advances that are guiding work in the field today. We then define and discuss protective factors linked with the resilience process. Finally, we offer clinical implications for individual, family, and group therapy with children.
Definitions of Resilience
The term resilience has been defined in many ways. Masten, Best, and Garmezy’s (1990) definition of resilience as “the process of, capacity for, or outcome of successful adaptation despite chal- lenging or threatening circumstances” (p. 426) is one of the more familiar and widely accepted in the field. Many definitions of resilience require specification of an identified risk or challenge to which an individual is subjected, followed by some defined mea- sure of positive outcome. However, controversy remains regarding what constitutes resilient behavior and how to best measure suc- cessful adaptation to adversity. Some have suggested that a resil- ient person must show positive outcomes across several aspects of his life over periods of time (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1997). Further, resilience is not a one-dimensional, dichotomous attribute that persons either have or do not have (Reivich & Shatté, 2003). Rather, resilience implies the possession of multiple skills, in varying degrees, that help individuals to cope.
For the purpose of this article, we define resilience broadly as those skills, attributes, and abilities that enable individuals to adapt to hardships, difficulties, and challenges. Although some attributes are biologically determined, we believe resilience skills can be strengthened as well as learned.
Early Studies in Resilience
Early clinical case descriptions spawned an interest in determin- ing why some children manage to cope with adversity whereas others succumb. One such case of a 14-year-old Swiss girl was described by Bleuler (1984; as cited in Anthony, 1987a). “Vreni,” in the absence of her mother (who was hospitalized with mental illness), raised her siblings, cared for her alcoholic and physically compromised father, and later reported having a happy marriage and contented life. Anthony’s description of “invulnerable” chil- dren (Anthony, 1987b) and Murphy and Moriarty’s “good copers”
MARY KARAPETIAN ALVORD received her PhD from the University of Maryland in 1977. She is currently the director of the Group Therapy Center at Alvord, Baker & Associates, LLC, an independent therapy practice in the Washington, DC, metropolitan area. Her interests are focused on resilience and social skill development of children and adoles- cents. JUDY JOHNSON GRADOS received her PsyD from Indiana State University in 1995. She currently practices with Alvord, Baker & Associates, LLC. Her research interests include social skills training for children and resilience in children and adolescents. WE GRATEFULLY ACKNOWLEDGE Dr. W. Gregory Alvord, Dr. Patricia K. S. Baker, and Ms. Anne McGrath for their support and editorial comments. We also thank Mrs. Maria Manolatos for assistance in the preparation of the manuscript. CORRESPONDENCE CONCERNING THIS ARTICLE should be addressed to Mary Karapetian Alvord, Alvord, Baker & Associates, LLC, 11161 New Hamp- shire Avenue, Suite 307, Silver Spring, MD 20904. E-mail: MAlvord@alvordbaker.com
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice Copyright 2005 by the American Psychological Association 2005, Vol. 36, No. 3, 238 –245 0735-7028/05/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7028.36.3.238
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(Murphy & Moriarty, 1976) sparked early interest as well. Rutter’s Isle of Wight studies (Rutter, Tizard, Yule, Graham, & Whitmore, 1976), large-scale longitudinal undertakings such as Project Com- petence (Garmezy, Masten, & Tellegen, 1984; Masten, 2000), and Werner’s now four-decade-long study of high-risk infants born into poverty on the Hawaiian island of Kauai (Werner, 1993; Werner & Smith, 2001) have helped to lay the groundwork for what we know today.
Recent Advances
The emerging research in the area of resilience encompasses many areas. These include investigations of children from various cultures (Grotberg, 1995; Hart, Hofmann, Edelstein, & Keller, 1997), studies of the influences of biological mechanisms (Curtis & Cicchetti, 2003; Rutter, 2002), new findings in recovering to normal functioning in varying stages of development, research on the impact of internal challenges, and theories on the processes that promote resilience under nonrisk conditions. We consider the latter three areas below.
Evidence that children can recover and develop normally comes from a recent study of Romanian children who experienced severe deprivation in orphanages and were later adopted into nurturing homes in the United Kingdom. At the time of adoption, most of these children showed substantial gross physical and cognitive lags in development. Later, when assessed at age 4, many of these adoptees showed significant “catch-up,” both physically and cog- nitively (Rutter & The English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team, 1998; Rutter, Pickles, Murray, & Eaves, 2001). Follow-up in Werner and Smith’s (2001) Kauai study revealed that even those individuals who were troubled as adolescents were able to change the course of their lives in dramatic ways by making wise choices and taking advantage of opportunities, for example, by continuing their education, learning new skills, joining the military, relocating to break ties with deviant peers, and choosing healthy life partners.
Major longitudinal studies have followed the outcome of indi- viduals with learning disabilities and attention-deficit/hyperactiv- ity disorder (ADHD) to determine those factors that contribute to their resilience (Gerber, Ginsburg, & Reiff, 1990, and Spekman, Goldberg, & Herman, 1992, as cited in Katz, 1997; Werner & Smith, 2001). Studies reveal that resilient learning-disabled youth search for personal control over their lives, possess a strong desire to succeed, set goals, demonstrate high levels of persistence, and are willing to seek out and accept support. Resilient learning- disabled young adults report better ability to identify their suc- cesses and unique strengths, are more likely to report turning points in their lives as motivations to overcome their challenges, and show a stronger self-determination (Miller, 2002). Hechtman (1991; as cited in Katz, 1997), in a long-term prospective follow-up of young adults diagnosed with ADHD as children, found that the presence of an influential person in their lives who believed in them (e.g., parent, teacher, coach) was most signifi- cant. Effort is being put forth to better understand the risk and resilience processes in this population of youth (Murray, 2003).
Masten (2001) challenged the notion that resilient children possess some rare and special qualities. She suggested that resil- ience stems from a healthy operation of basic human adaptational systems. If systems are intact, children should develop appropri- ately even if challenged. However, if children’s basic adaptational
systems are impaired, prior to or following challenge, the risk for problems in development is increased.
Protective Factors
Protective factors are “influences that modify, ameliorate, or alter a person’s response to some environmental hazard that pre- disposes to a maladaptive outcome” (Rutter, 1985, p. 600). Pro- tective factors arise from within the child, from the family or extended family, and from the community (Werner, 1995). A child’s intelligence, success at making friends, and ability to regulate his behavior are examples of internal strengths that pro- mote resilience. Examples of external influences that enhance resilience are competent parents, friendships, support networks, and effective schools.
Protective factors that help children successfully adapt and cope with life’s challenges must be viewed in the context of their individual cultures and developmental stages. The International Resilience Project (Grotberg, 1995) showed, for example, that faith operates as a stronger protective factor in some cultures than in others. In addition, children’s developmental and cognitive levels affect their ability to use various protective factors, as do internal and biological vulnerabilities such as ADHD and learning disabilities.
While researchers forge ahead to examine the complex interplay between risk factors, protective factors, and prevention and inter- vention strategies, practitioners need to know what factors may be strengthened in children to further promote positive appropriate responses. Below we discuss six protective factors that appear to buffer against risk factors. These factors have been categorized in accordance with the accumulating resilience literature and our experience in clinical practice. These six categories are not mutu- ally exclusive. Many of the components described in one factor are related to components in other factors. For example, a child who can self-regulate is more apt to make friends and connect with others. A child who experiences academic success is likely to have higher self-esteem. The presence of several factors seems to en- hance performance in multiple arenas.
Proactive Orientation
Proactive orientation, that is, taking initiative in one’s own life and believing in one’s own effectiveness, has been identified as a primary characteristic defining resilience in the literature. Such terms as self-efficacy and self-esteem (Rutter, 1985), positive fu- ture expectations (Wyman, Cowen, Work, & Kerley, 1993), good coping (Murphy & Moriarty, 1976), primary and secondary con- trol coping (Thurber & Weisz, 1997), personal control (Walsh, 1998), problem solving (Werner, 1995), initiative (Wolin & Wolin, 1993), optimistic thinking (Seligman, 1995), and internal motiva- tion (Masten, 2001) have been identified as protective factors of resilience in studies across heterogeneous populations and envi- ronments. These terms mean that resilient individuals have a realistic, positive sense of self. They regard themselves as survi- vors (Wolin & Wolin, 1993). They feel that they can have an impact on their environment or situation, rather than just be pas- sive observers. They are hopeful about the future. They are con- fident in their ability to surmount obstacles (Werner, 1993), make use of resources and opportunities around them, and view hard- ships as “learning experiences” (Werner & Smith, 2001). Resilient
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individuals take positive action in their lives, such as seeking mentors, pursuing educational opportunities, participating in ex- tracurricular activities, and choosing supportive mates (Werner, 1993; Werner & Smith, 2001). Those who possess a high degree of “perceived self-efficacy” are more likely to interpret successes as an indication of their capabilities (Bandura, Pastorelli, Bar- baranelli, & Caprara, 1999). Seligman (2002) pointed out that when people think adverse events are permanent and pervasive for long periods of time, they assume feelings of helplessness and hopelessness. In contrast, he noted, when they think that negative things are temporary, this attitude encourages resilience.
Teaching children to help others is an effective way to promote responsibility, empathy, and self-esteem (Brooks, 1994; Werner, 1993). Giving of oneself in an effort to ease the plight of others, such as contributing time and effort at a soup kitchen, nursing home, hospital, and so forth, fosters resilience. Similarly, “required helpfulness” (Rachman, 1979) refers to the process that occurs when an individual is striving to overcome adversity and during the course of this pursuit is required to perform actions to help others in their personal times of need.
Self-Regulation
One of the most fundamental protective factors is success in developing self-regulation or self-control. Masten and Coatsworth (1998) define self-regulation as gaining control over attention, emotions, and behavior. If a child is able to modulate her emotions and behavior and can self-soothe or calm herself, she will most likely elicit positive attention from others (including parents) and will have healthy social relationships. She will more likely be independent and will be more able to put things in perspective. Easygoing temperament and good self-regulation have been iden- tified as protective factors in resilience (Buckner, Mezzacappa, & Beardslee, 2003; Eisenberg et al., 1997, 2003; Werner, 1993). Additionally, impulse control and delay of gratification are part of self-control. The ability to self-regulate also seems to be at the core of good interpersonal relationships and peer relationships (Rubin, Coplan, Fox, & Calkins, 1995), rule compliance (Feldman & Klein, 2003), reduced risk of depression and anxiety, and a host of other areas fundamental to successful adaptation and functioning.
Common sense would dictate that positive emotionality should result in positive outcomes. Although this is true, recent research indicates that perhaps it is not positive or negative emotion per se that is the critical variable in adaptation, but the ability to regulate the emotion. In a longitudinal study of 5-year-olds, Rydell, Berlin, and Bohlin (2003) found that low regulation of positive emotions and exuberance was correlated with externalizing problem behav- iors and low levels of prosocial behavior, whereas high regulation of positive emotions and exuberance was associated with high levels of prosocial behavior.
Proactive Parenting
Children with at least one warm, loving parent or surrogate caregiver (grandparent, foster parent) who provides firm limits and boundaries (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998) are more likely to be resilient. They tend to be more compliant with their parents (Feld- man & Klein, 2003) and have better peer relationships (Contreras, Kerns, Weimer, Gentzler, & Tomich, 2000). A significant longi- tudinal study that began in 1959 has identified the authoritative
parenting style as associated with “optimal competence” in chil- dren and adolescents (Baumrind, 1989). Authoritative parents are characterized as “responsive” and “demanding” (Baumrind, 1991). Responsive parents are warm, loving, and supportive and provide a cognitively stimulating environment. They are also demanding in that they apply rational, firm, and consistent, but not overbearing, control on their children and place high behavioral expectations on them (Baumrind, 1991). Eisenberg et al. (2003) found that mater- nal expression of positive emotion is related to children’s social competence and adjustment. Correspondingly, Rubin, Burgess, Dwyer, and Hastings (2003) found that dysregulated toddlers who experienced high levels of maternal negativity had a greater like- lihood of externalizing problem behaviors 2 years later than tod- dlers whose mothers showed low to average levels of negativity.
Connections and Attachments
The desire to belong and to form attachments with family and friends is considered a fundamental human need (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Multiple positive health and adjustment effects have been associated with a sense of belonging and attachments. It is also through supportive relationships that self-esteem and self- efficacy are promoted (Werner, 1993). Having social competence and having positive connections with peers, family, and prosocial adults are significantly related to children’s ability to adapt to life stressors (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998). Resilient children also elicit positive attention from others (Werner, 1993).
For children, the development of friendships and the ability to get along with peers individually and in groups is paramount. Friendships provide support systems that can foster emotional, social, and educational adjustment (Rubin, 2002). Being part of at least one best friendship may also improve children’s adjustment (Hartup & Stevens, 1997). Positive peer relationships have been shown to protect children during times of family crisis. Acceptance by a group lowers the risk of externalizing behavior problems (Criss, Pettit, Bates, Dodge, & Lapp, 2002). A child who has friends and is well liked is less likely to be bullied or otherwise victimized (Pellegrini, Bartini, & Brooks, 1999; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998).
Although possessing a strong social support network renders children less vulnerable to stress, depression, and externalizing problems, the availability of social supports cannot be taken for granted. “Social support is not a self-forming entity waiting around to buffer harried people against stressors” (Bandura et al., 1999, p. 259). An active process is involved, and children, like adults, need to create and maintain supportive relationships. Connections affect how one treats and responds to others and how they, in turn, respond, thus forming a reciprocal relationship. It is easier for people to respond with more positive feedback and affection to an easygoing child who is sensitive to others and shows good self- control than to a child who is impulsive, who overreacts to events, and whose emotions are not well regulated. Children who share, who are compliant with social rules, and who are positive with peers are more likely to sustain their relationships.
School Achievement and Involvement, IQ, and Special Talents
Schools give young people a chance to excel academically and socially. Educational aspirations (Tiet et al., 1998) and active
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engagement in academics (Morrison, Robertson, Laurie, & Kelly, 2002) have been associated with resilience in challenged youth. Although the reasons for this are not yet clear, a number of factors are likely to contribute. Encouragement from teachers fosters resilience through connections, as noted above. Further, involve- ment in extracurricular activities such as art, music, drama, special interest clubs, and sporting activities gives youth opportunities to participate in prosocial groups and achieve recognition for their efforts. A positive orientation toward school and school activities has been shown to protect against antisocial behavior (Jessor, Van Den Bos, Vanderryn, Costa, & Turbin, 1995).
Cognitive ability has been found to be associated with resilience in children (Fergusson & Lynskey, 1996). It also appears to exert a strong influence on other factors that contribute to resilience. For example, strong cognitive skills may allow youth to excel in school, as well as to make the most of educational opportunities and cultural experiences. Additionally, a commitment to school helps to counter the risk of violent behaviors (Department of Health and Human Services, 2001).
Fostering competence in children is central to resilient outcome. Brooks and Goldstein (2001) believe each child possesses at least one small “island of competence,” or area that has the potential to be a source of pride or achievement. Fostering resilience in youth requires that parents highlight children’s areas of competence to help them experience a sense of accomplishment. They suggest involving children in daily activities that allow them to feel they are contributing to the world. Examples include assisting other children, acting as a school patrol, or helping an older neighbor.
Community
Community factors, including the availability of supportive relationships outside of the family (Masten, 2001; Werner, 1995), are also well documented as having a protective influence on children. Resilient youth form relationships with positive role models and elders outside of their own family (Wolin & Wolin, 1993). Youths often join clubs, teams, and other groups and frequently find mentors such as coaches, teachers, scout leaders, and other prosocial adults in their communities. Effective schools identify the needs of their students and address those needs with services, as well as by consideration of class size and curricula.
Important elements of an effective community are environments and social structures that promote resilience. Early prevention and intervention programs, safety in neighborhoods, support services, recreational facilities and programs, accessibility to adequate health services, and economic opportunities for families have all been identified as protective factors (Thomlison, 1997). Religious and spiritual organizations may also serve as buffers, providing services and social support within the community.
Implications for Individual and Family Clinical Interventions
The following intervention strategies emphasize strengthening assets and protective factors.
1. Teach children and families problem-solving skills to identify controllable and uncontrollable circumstances and adversities. Cognitive problem-solving skills training has been well docu- mented in the literature (Kazdin & Weisz, 1998). Therapists and parents can model problem solving by talking out a particular
situation and identifying steps to be taken. Children should be asked questions to encourage them to generate alternatives and options (Bloomquist, 1996).
2. Encourage children to express their feelings, both positive and negative. Emotional upset during and after traumatic events is normal, and children need the opportunity to talk about their concerns (Grados & Alvord, 2003).
3. Help children and families to identify strengths and positive family experiences. Families should be encouraged to have “spe- cial time” to promote relaxing and constructive interactions (Bar- kley & Benton, 1998). Humor can be a healing and coping tool in times of stress (Brooks & Goldstein, 2001; Wolin & Wolin, 1993), making activities or interactions that might encourage fun and laughter important.
4. Guide parents and teachers in fostering self-esteem in chil- dren through meaningful responsibilities whereby children may gain a sense of accomplishment and mastery. Provide children with opportunities for developing and nurturing their talents (Brooks & Goldstein, 2001). Encourage them to try to see whether they can effect some change. Teach them that mistakes are okay and that they can be a valuable learning tool.
5. Teach optimistic thinking and perspective taking. Help chil- dren to realistically attribute successes to themselves and not simply to environmental circumstances. Cognitive restructuring can be used to help children change the way they judge their accomplishments (Bandura, 1997). Seligman’s Penn Program (Se- ligman, 1995) develops optimistic thinking in children by teaching them to become aware of their thoughts, assess how realistic they are, generate more accurate explanations, and decatastrophize thoughts about negative events. Children who are able to think of negative events as temporary rather than permanent tend to be more resilient (Seligman, 2002). One of our child clients said that she learned in therapy that “bad things and thoughts don’t last forever and it may take awhile to bounce back.”
6. Teach cognitive strategies such as thought stopping and changing channels. In this latter technique, children make TV sets from folders and paper and assign station numbers to various feelings. Children are taught that if their thoughts and emotions are on the “angry channel,” they can switch to the “calm channel.”
7. Teach relaxation and self-control techniques. Techniques such as deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, visualiza- tion, and guided imagery add to a child’s skills to self-regulate. One technique for younger children is the “turtle technique” (Rob- ins, Schneider, & Dolnick, 1977), a modified progressive relax- ation and problem-solving strategy in which a child imitates the action of a distressed turtle; the child mimics the turtle by retreat- ing into its “shell” and then contemplates possible solutions to the problem. Another is called “rag doll” (Moser, 1988), a relaxation exercise in which the child tightens his entire body and then slowly bends over until his arms are loose and swing like a rag doll’s. Engaging in sports activities and physical exercise can also pro- mote relaxation. Teaching a child to distract himself with an activity can help take his mind off his anxiety. For example, a common way in which children may cope with homesickness is to do something fun to take their minds off it (Thurber & Weisz, 1997).
8. Teach parents that the critical factors in fostering resilience in children are warmth, limit setting, and consistency. Children ben- efit from routines and a sense of order in their lives. Parents also need to help their children believe in themselves by setting real-
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istically high expectations for them. In this way, parents inspire their children to recognize that they can make things happen by being proactive. They need to encourage the development of self-sufficiency and independence by giving children age- appropriate choices and responsibilities. Parenting books such as Your Defiant Child (Barkley & Benton, 1998), Raising Resilient Children (Brooks & Goldstein, 2001), and How to Discipline Without Feeling Guilty (Silberman & Wheelan, 1980) can be helpful.
Implications for Group Interventions
In this section, we consider group intervention strategies that we have found to be effective. In this era of managed care, with emphasis on providing cost-effective psychological services, group therapies have enjoyed widespread popularity among clini- cians. Social skills groups offer effective treatment interventions (Pfiffner & McBurnett, 1997; Tynan, 1999). They can be offered at a relatively low cost and are the treatment of choice for peer- related issues. In the following, we describe our group model, which applies what is recognized in the field about promoting resilience in young people and capitalizes on the protective influ- ences that may serve to buffer them from stress.
The Alvord–Baker Social Skills Group Model
The Alvord–Baker model of social skills groups is a resilience- based curriculum that focuses on a proactive orientation and cognitive– behavioral strategies. Children exist as part of families and communities. Therefore we present a systems model that coordinates treatment with school and community resources as appropriate.
Groups are presented to the community as “social skills groups.” Thus, parents are less affected by the stigma that might be related to seeking mental health services. Children feel a sense of belong- ing and acceptance as being part of a group. The model is designed for 12–14 sessions per semester paralleling the academic year, with two consecutive semesters of attendance recommended for maximum benefit. Each group may include up to six children and is facilitated by a single clinician. It assumes a fee-for-service model of practice.
Groups are composed of children of the same gender but with mixed diagnoses, for example, ADHD and anxiety disorders (par- ticularly social anxiety symptoms). A limited number of children with mild Asperger’s disorder are included in the groups. Some children also have learning disabilities and fine-motor/gross-motor skills deficits. Children with below average intellectual capability or severe aggressive behavior are not appropriate for this group model. Research indicates that placing antisocial youth together results in interventions that are often ineffective and may even increase the likelihood of delinquency (Dishion, McCord, & Pou- lin, 1999).
Groups based on this model have been operating in our practice for the past 12 years. What is described below applies particularly to groups for children in second through fifth grades. Groups for kindergarten through first grade and middle school-age children use the same model. However, the activities are modified to be more developmentally appropriate.
The model consists of five structural components: (a) the inter- active didactic component, during which the children are asked to
think, offer ideas, and actively learn new skills; (b) the free-play component, during which children must negotiate and interact; (c) the relaxation/self-regulation component, during which children practice stress-reduction and self-regulation strategies; (d) the gen- eralization component, during which the children apply what they have learned outside of the group; and (e) the parental component, in which parents are informed of skills taught in each session and are encouraged to actively participate and guide their child through the homework assignment given each week.
Group rules are clearly defined in the first session and rein- forced with a reward system throughout future sessions. Children are active participants in developing the rules. Rules generally include talking one at a time, staying in one’s personal space, playing cooperatively, and talking nicely. A systematic behavior reward system is implemented that includes charting points for each child. Children can earn points for following group rules, completing and discussing their homework, talking about their progress toward their individual goals, and taking part in the self-regulation technique of the day. Points can be traded in for a small prize every few sessions or accumulated to earn something more attractive, exposing children to the idea of delayed gratifi- cation. In each session, one child is selected to receive the lead- ership award (a small certificate) on the basis of leadership qual- ities or actions that the children have previously identified.
The Interactive Didactic Component
The interactive didactic component involves identifying the resilience factors and social skills that we want to teach. We introduce this process not by lecturing to children but by guiding them. We ask for their input, thus modeling collaboration and encouraging them to actively participate. By generating their own ideas, children receive positive feedback, remember their ideas better, and feel empowered. For example, the therapist may have determined from parent feedback that the children need to work on problem solving. The therapist would introduce the concept and then elicit from the youth what the elements of problem solving are and what they mean. The children are then asked to identify a problem and discuss what might have caused it, how another person might feel, and what each thought in this situation. The children discuss how they would individually feel in the same circumstances. They also explore possible solutions to the problem.
After the discussion, the children identify actual experiences they have had that fit the topic and role-play possible actions. In the case of problem solving, a child might offer that he wanted to join a soccer game during recess but did not. The children take turns playing a variety of roles, practicing both counterproductive responses and responses that would result in a positive impact on others. The role-playing is followed by a discussion in which the children identify what worked and what did not. Other activities used to model appropriate behaviors and responses may be puppet shows, interactive stories, and books (Alvord & O’Leary, 1985).
One important piece of the interactive didactic component is that each child (with his or her parent) must select an individual goal to work on throughout the course of the semester. This encourages children to take responsibility for an area of need as they identify strengths that will help them attain the goal. One child might decide to work on managing his anger; another might choose to work on initiating and maintaining a conversation with
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a peer, and a third might decide to work on joining group activities. At each session, each child shares what happened during the prior week that relates to his individual progress. The others listen, often empathizing by sharing comparable situations they have encoun- tered. One child had the problem of interrupting conversations, and so he set a goal to remember that only one person talks at a time. In a collaborative effort, the group came up with a “rule” that we have since expanded on, called the one-minute rule, which says to stop, look, and listen. Before taking action, saying something, or joining in a conversation or activity, the child must stop (for one minute), during which he is to look (at what others are doing), listen (to what others are talking about), and then decide to join, take action, or choose to say or do nothing. Coining a name for a rule or process helps children remember it.
Free Play and Behavioral Rehearsal
Once the didactic part of the session has ended, the children move to free play. Children who are resilient are good at compro- mising and are flexible in their thinking. This allows them to cope with disappointments better because they are able to see other options. The point of free play is to offer a real-life play situation in which children undergo a structured process of negotiation and compromise. Because one of our rules is that each child must play with at least one other child, the children learn to reach consensus on what they would like to play together. During this process, each states his choice of a game or toy. This process is continued until all children are paired or in a group. The next challenge is to sustain play while being a good sport.
One key to free play is that the children view it as a fun and natural activity, while the therapists use it to change behavior as it occurs. Through behavioral rehearsal, therapists intervene to stop the “incorrect” interaction and have the children replace it with a “correct,” prosocial behavior and then practice until it is right. Too often these children have been told what not to do and do not know what to do. Children come to understand that mistakes are okay and that they can think of ways to learn from their mistakes and fix them.
Relaxation and Self-Control Techniques
One of the inner strengths that resilient individuals possess is the ability to self-regulate emotions and behavior. Many children who are at risk, such as those with ADHD, lack self-control and experience dysregulation (Barkley, 1997). In this group model, one or more self-regulation techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation and visualization are taught or practiced during each session. Children are introduced to many strategies so they can decide what works best for them. After several sessions, children take turns leading the exercises (i.e., the visualization). In this way, children acquire mastery of the techniques and come to see the value in an active approach.
Generalization
It is important to generalize change to the natural settings of home, school, and community to promote resilience. Goldstein and Martens (2000) have written a book devoted to methods for enhancing generalization of change. They attribute the failure of many strategies to generalize to the lack of a deliberate generali-
zation program. They claim that it is the repeated practice of successful attempts that increases generalizability.
One critical feature of our model is the incorporation of multiple strategies to increase the likelihood of generalizing the changes brought about by the groups through weekly practice. Strategies include weekly homework assignments (which we call “learning enhancements”), involvement of parents, and, when appropriate, collaboration with the child’s school.
A learning enhancement (T. Verratti, personal communication, February 4, 1999) or homework is assigned weekly. Learning enhancements foster active coping by requiring practice of the skill discussed and rehearsed in the previous session. The practices are then documented on checklists or written assignments. We stress that, as with musical instruments, one must practice what one has learned between lessons to optimize gain. If children have diffi- culty with writing, assignments may be dictated to parents. In any case, parents must initial the assignment each week. This promotes discussion of the skills, children’s ideas, and their performance.
During our intake, teachers complete the Behavior Assessment System for Children if parents have given consent. Also, collateral contact with teachers and other professionals in the child’s life (e.g., individual therapists, school counselors, learning specialists) is undertaken when appropriate. We encourage parents to share our learning enhancements with school personnel so that skills can be reinforced in the school setting.
We encourage children to participate in teams and groups out- side of the school day to develop their connections with the community (e.g., sports, martial arts, scouts). We ask that parents reinforce the demonstration of skills in these settings. Often sports coaches (at the elementary school level) like to know the issues and wish to work with parents to reinforce positive behaviors in the children.
Parents as Active Partners
Parents are involved in a variety of ways. Each child has a folder in which parents and therapists communicate. At every group session, parents receive a letter in their child’s folder explaining what skill is being worked on and why it is important, some tips on how to foster the behavior or thought pattern, and the learning enhancement of the week. The folder is also another means for parents to provide information to the therapist. Once a month, parents (or the caretaker who brings the child, such as a grandpar- ent or nanny) join the last 15 min of the session so that children can share what they have been working on. We practice self-esteem- promoting activities every session, for example, children compli- menting one another and making positive statements about their strengths and accomplishments. These are shared with parents during the meeting. Although parent groups have been offered to promote generalizability (Pfiffner & McBurnett, 1997; Tynan, 1999), we have found that it is impractical to require them to participate in separate weekly parenting groups (owing to expense, time, coordination of schedules, and so forth). However, we do offer a variety of groups, some time limited and others that have lasted over several years (moms’ groups, dads’ groups, parents’ groups on behavior management, and so on), and we encourage participation in them. We also make available individual parent meetings with the therapist and require that parents attend at least one per semester.
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Conclusion
Studies over the past four decades have identified characteristics and protective factors of individuals, families, and communities related to resilience. Resilience should be seen as an acquired, gradually internalized, generalized set of attributes that enable a person to adapt to life’s difficult circumstances. It involves action. It means taking charge of one’s life. Youth who are resilient are proactive when faced with challenges. They adapt to difficult circumstances by using internal as well as external resources. They are realistic. Resilient children come to understand that although they cannot control everything, they do have some power to influence what happens next. The Alvord–Baker social skills group model incorporates the protective factors found in the liter- ature and provides a practical, proactive, cognitive– behavioral approach to foster resilience in children. The practical implemen- tation of these procedures by clinicians, along with the active participation of the children and their parents, results in an inte- grated approach that helps develop and enhance resilience.
The Alvord–Baker social skills group model has been an inte- gral part of our practice for the past 12 years. During the past 5 years, we have been collecting information from parents and teachers, and in the past 2 years, empirical data, in an attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of our model.
We feel the task ahead is twofold. First, clinicians should apply what is known about factors that promote resilience to a variety of treatment modalities and child populations. Second, although resilience-based interventions clearly benefit children, empirically based effectiveness studies are needed to measure progress in the field.
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Received September 17, 2003 Revision received January 27, 2004
Accepted March 11, 2004 �
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