Social Problems Fourteenth edition

D. Stanley Eitzen Colorado State University

Maxine Baca Zinn Michigan State University

Kelly Eitzen Smith University of Arizona, Drachman Institute

330 Hudson Street, NY, NY 10013

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Eitzen, D. Stanley, author. | Zinn, Maxine Baca, author. |    Smith, Kelly Eitzen, author. Title: Social problems/D. Stanley Eitzen, Colorado State University, Maxine    Baca Zinn, Michigan State University, Kelly Eitzen Smith, University of    Arizona, Drachman Institute. Description: Fourteenth edition. | Boston : Pearson, [2017] Identifiers: LCCN 2016037871| ISBN 9780134631905 (alk. paper) | ISBN    0134631900 (alk. paper) | ISBN 9780134637907 | ISBN 9780134637808 Subjects: LCSH: Social problems. | Social problems—United States. | Social    structure—United States. | United States—Social conditions—1945– Classification: LCC HN17.5 .E372 2017 | DDC 361.1—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016037871

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Part 1 The Political Economy of Social Problems

1 The Sociological Approach to Social Problems 1

2 Wealth and Power: The Bias of the System 20

Part 2 Problems of People, Loca- tion, and the Environment

3 World Population and Global Inequality 46

4 Demographic Changes in the United States: The Browning and Graying of Society 68

5 Problems of Place: Urban, Suburban, and Rural 94

6 Threats to the Environment 122

Part 3 Problems of Inequality

7 Poverty 145 8 Racial and Ethnic

Inequality 171

9 Gender Inequality 197 10 Disability and Ableism 223

Part 4 Social Structure and Individual Deviance

11 Crime and Justice 244 12 Drugs 271

Part 5 Institutional Problems

13 The Economy and Work 299 14 Families 322 15 Education 346 16 The Health Care System 375 17 National Security in the

Twenty-First Century 399

Part 6 Solutions

18 Progressive Plan to Solve Social Problems 424

Brief Contents

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Box Features xi Preface xii

Part 1 The Political Economy of Social Problems

1 The Sociological Approach to Social Problems 1

An Introduction to Social Issues 2

Defining Social Problems 5 The Objective and Subjective

Nature of Social Problems 6 Types of Social Problems 7

The Sociological Perspective 9 The System-Blame Approach to

Social Problems 11

Studying Social Problems: The Craft of Sociology 13 Sociological Questions 13 Sources of Data 14 Objectivity 16 Chapter Review 17 • Key Terms 19

2 Wealth and Power: The Bias of the System 20

U.S. Economy: Concentration of Corporate Wealth 21 Monopolistic Capitalism 22 Transnational Corporations 25 Concentration of Wealth 25

Political System: Links Between Wealth and Power 27 Government by Interest Groups 27 The Financing of Political Campaigns 29 Candidate Selection Process 35 The Power Elite 35

The Consequences of Concentrated Power 37 The Powerful Control Ideology 37 Powerful Corporations Receive Benefits 39 Trickle-Down Solutions Disadvantage the Powerless 40 The Powerless Bear the Burden 41 Reprise: The Best Democracy Money Can Buy 42 Chapter Review 43 • Key Terms 44

Part 2 Problems of People, Location, and the Environment

3 World Population and Global Inequality 46

World Population Growth 47 Demographic Transition 48 Family Planning 50 Societal Changes 51

Global Inequality 52 Food and Hunger 54 Sickness and Disease 56 The New Slavery 58 Concentration of Misery in Cities 59

U.S. Relations with the Developing World 60 Transnational Corporations 61

United States in the Global Village 64 Chapter Review 66 • Key Terms 67

4 Demographic Changes in the United States: The Browning and Graying of Society 68

New Immigration and the Changing Racial Landscape 69 Immigration Patterns 69 Conflicts over Immigration 72 Immigration and Human Agency 76

Contents

v

vi Contents

The Aging Society 78 Demographic Trends 79 Demographic Portrait of the Current

Elderly Population 79

Problems of an Aging Society 83 Social Security 83 Paying for Health Care 87 Elder Abuse 88 Aging and Human Agency 90 Chapter Review 91 • Key Terms 92

5 Problems of Place: Urban, Suburban, and Rural 94

Urban Problems 95 Urban Job Loss 95 Disinvestment 96 Federal Abandonment 97 Urban Poverty 98 Urban Housing Crisis 98 Decaying Infrastructure 103 Transportation Problems 103 Health Problems 104 Urban Schools 105 Crime, Drugs, and Gangs 105

Suburban Problems 106 Suburban Sprawl 107 Social Isolation in the Suburbs 110 Transforming the Suburbs: The End of Sprawl? 110

Rural Problems 111 Poverty 113 Jobs in Rural Areas 113 Environment 117 Health Care and Delivery 117 Small-Town Decline 118 Crime and Illicit Drugs 118 Chapter Review 119 • Key Terms 120

6 Threats to the Environment 122 Worldwide Environmental Problems 123

Degradation of the Land 124 Deforestation 125

Environmental Pollution and Degradation 126 Fossil Fuel Dependence 132 Climate Change 133

Sources of U.S. Environmental Problems 135 Cultural Sources 135 Structural Sources 137

Solutions to the Environmental Crises 140 Individual/Local Solutions 140 Societal-Level Solutions 140 Global-Level Solutions 142 Chapter Review 143 • Key Terms 143

Part 3 Problems of Inequality

7 Poverty 145 Extent of Poverty 146

Racial/Ethnic Minorities 148 Gender 149 Age 149 Place 149 The Severely Poor 151

Myths about Poverty 151 Just “Get a Job” 151 Welfare Dependency 153 The Poor Get Special Advantages 155

Causes of Poverty 156 Deficiency Theories 157 Structural Theories 161

Consequences and Solutions 164 Family Problems 165 Health Problems 165 Problems in School 165 Economic Costs 166 Potential Solutions 166 Chapter Review 169 • Key Terms 170

8 Racial and Ethnic Inequality 171

Defining Race and Ethnicity 172 The Changing Social Definitions of Race 173 Ethnic Groups and Their Differences 177

Contents vii

Racial and Ethnic Groups in the United States and Inequality 178 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the

United States 178 Racial-Ethnic Inequality 181

Explanations of Racial and Ethnic Inequality 185 Deficiency Theories 185 Bias Theories 186 Structural Discrimination Theories 187

Contemporary Trends and Issues in U.S. Racial and Ethnic Relations 189 Growing Racial Conflict 189 Social and Economic Isolation in

U.S. Inner Cities 191 Racial Policies in the New Century 194 Chapter Review 194 • Key Terms 195

9 Gender Inequality 197 The Difference Between Sex and Gender 198

Is Gender Biological or Social? 199 Intersections of Gender, Race, Class, and Sexuality 200

Learning and “Doing Gender” 201 Learning Gender at Home 201 Learning Gender Through Play 202 Learning Gender Through Language 204 Doing Gender: Interpersonal Behavior 204 Socialization versus Structure:

Two Approaches to Gender Inequality 206

Reinforcing Gender Inequality Through Institutions 207 Formal Education 207 Mass Media 210 Religion 211 The Law 212 Politics 213

Structured Gender Inequality in the Workplace 214 Occupational Distribution 214 The Earnings Gap 216 Intersection of Race and Gender in the

Workplace 217 How Workplace Inequality Operates 218

Gender in the Global Economy 219 Fighting Structured Gender Inequality 220 Chapter Review 221 • Key Terms 222

10 Disability and Ableism 223 Definitions and Models of Disability 224

Individual Model of Disability 224 Social Model of Disability 226 Toward a More Complete Definition

of Disability 226

People with Disabilities as a Minority Group 227 Defined as Different 227 Derogatory Naming 227 Minority as a Master Status 228 Categorization, Stigma, and Stereotypes 228 Exclusion and Segregation 229 Matrix of Domination 230 Discrimination 231

Issues of Gender, Sexual Behavior, and Abuse 232 Gender Stereotyping 233 Sexual Relationships 234 Physical and Sexual Abuse 235

Agency 235 Disability Rights Movement 236 Americans with Disabilities Act 237 Prenatal Testing and Disability Rights 239 Chapter Review 242 • Key Terms 243

Part 4 Social Structure and Individual Deviance

11 Crime and Justice 244 The Definition of Crime 245

What Is Crime? 245 Categories of Crime 246

Crime Rates in the United States 253 Violent Crimes and Property Crimes 253 Murder and Nonnegligent Manslaughter 254 Demographic Characteristics of People

Arrested for Crimes 254

Unjust System of Justice 256 Laws 257

viii Contents

Police 257 Judicial Process 259 U.S. Correctional System 265 Stopping the Cradle to Prison Pipeline 267 Chapter Review 268 • Key Terms 269

12 Drugs 271 The Politics of Drugs 272

Historical Legality of Drugs 272 Factors Influencing Drug Laws

and Enforcement 274

Drug Use in the United States 277 Illegal Drugs 277 The Controversy over Marijuana 281 Legal Drugs 282 Drug Use Patterns by Class, Race, and Gender 286 Why Use Drugs? 287

U.S. Official Policy: A War on Drugs 290 Consequences of Official Drug Policies 291 Is the Drug War Racist? 292 Alternatives 293 Chapter Review 296 • Key Terms 298

Part 5 Institutional Problems

13 The Economy and Work 299

The Corporation-Dominated U.S. Economy 300 Capitalism 300

Socialism 302 The Corporation-Dominated U.S. Economy 304

Mega Economic Trends 305 Globalization 305 The Transformation of the Economy: From Manufacturing to Services 306 The Changing Nature of Jobs 307 The Great Recession 308

Work and Social Problems 311 Control of Workers 311 Alienation 312 Dangerous Working Conditions 312 Sweatshops 314

Unions and Their Decline 315 Discrimination in the Workplace:

Perpetuation of Inequality 317 Unemployment 317 Benefits Insecurity 318 Conclusion 319 Chapter Review 319 • Key Terms 321

14 Families 322 The Mythical Family in the United States 323

Economic Trends and U.S. Families 325 Economic Insecurity and Family Life 326 Today’s Diverse Family Forms 327

Institutional Support for Families 330 Balancing Work and Family with

Few Social Supports 330 Single Parents and Their Children 331 Societal Response to Disadvantaged

Children 333

Divorce 335 Consequences of Divorce 336 Children of Divorce 337

Violence in U.S. Families 339 Violence and the Social Organization

of the Family 339 Intimate Partner Violence 339 Child Abuse and Neglect 341 Chapter Review 344 • Key Terms 345

15 Education 346 Characteristics of Education in the United States 347

Education as a Conserving Force 347 Mass Education 348 Preoccupation with Order and Control 348 A Fragmented Education System 349 Local Control of Education 350 The Sifting and Sorting Function of Schools 352

The Common Core Controversy 352 No Child Left Behind 352 Common Core 353

Education and Inequality 354 Financing Public Education 359

Contents ix

Family and Community Resources 360 Higher Education and Stratification 363 Segregation 365 Tracking and Teachers’ Expectations 366

Possibilities for Promoting Equality of Opportunity 368

Provide Universal Preschool Programs 369 Offer Free Education 369 Set National Education Standards 370 Reduce Funding Disparities across States and

Districts 370 Reduce Class and School Size 371 Attract and Retain Excellent Teachers 371 Extend the School Day and Year 371 Hold Educators Accountable 371 Reform the Educational Philosophy

of Schools 372 Restructure Society 373 Chapter Review 373 • Key Terms 374

16 The Health Care System 375 Crises in Health Care 376

Rising Health Care Costs 376 Does the High Cost of Health Care Translate into Good Health Consequences? 378

Unequal Access to Health Care 379 Social Class 379 Race/Ethnicity 380 Gender 383

The Health Care System in the United States Prior to the 2010 Affordable Care Act 386

Different Plans for Different Categories of People 386

Private Insurance 387 For-Profit Hospitals 388 Managed Care Networks 389

Reforming the Health Care System of the United States 390

The Politics of Health Reform 391 Affordable Care Act/ObamaCare 392 The Future of the Affordable Health Care Act 394

Models for National Health Care: Lessons from Other Societies 394

The Bismarck Model 394 The Beveridge Model 395 The National Health Insurance Model 395 Chapter Review 397 • Key Terms 398

17 National Security in the Twenty- First Century 399

The U.S. Military Establishment 400 The Size of the U.S. Military 400 The Cost of Maintaining U.S. Military Superiority 401

The Threat of Terrorism 403 Domestic Terrorism 404 International Terrorism 407

U.S. National Security and the War on Terror 408 The War on Terror 409 The War in Iraq 411 The War in Afghanistan 412 The Costs of the Iraq and Afghanistan Wars 412 The Legacy of the Wars 415

Twenty-First Century Warfare 419 Minimizing Personnel 419 Shielding the Public 420 The Use of Drones 420 The Threat of Nuclear Weapons 421 Chapter Review 422 • Key Terms 423

Part 6 Solutions

18 Progressive Plan to Solve Social Problems 424

Sociology, Social Problems, and Social Change 425

The Sociological Imagination and Social Problems 425 Sociological Paradox: Structure and Agency 426 A Sociological Dilemma: Recognition and Rejection 426

Impediments to Social Change and Progressive Principles to Guide Policy 427 The Power of Money in Decision- Making 428

x Contents

Progressive Social Change and Higher Taxes 428 Gridlock Among Decision-Makers 429 Progressive Principles to Guide Public Policy 429

Progressive Social Policy 433 Should a Progressive Plan Be Adopted

by U.S. Society? 433 Financing the Progressive Agenda 434

Is There Any Hope of Instituting a Social Agenda Based on Progressive Principles? 434

Chapter Review 436 • Key Terms 437

Bibliography 438

Credits 462

Index 466

Social Problems in Global Perspective Social Welfare States: A Mixture of Capitalism and Socialism 8

China’s One-Child Policy 50

Why Is Haiti So Poor? 53 The Developed World Turns Gray 86 Mexico’s Drug War 291

The More Equal the Society, the Healthier the Citizens 380

Social Policy The Structure of the Senate as a Barrier to Democracy 28 Are Microloans the Answer for the World’s Poor? 65 The Unintended Consequences of Rigid Policing of the Border 71 The Future: Return to Urban Density? 111 Reducing the Risk of Future Disasters for Urban African Americans 193 A Progressive Strategy for Including More People with Disabilities in the Workforce 240 Halden, the World’s Most Humane Prison 267 Drug Decriminalization in Portugal 296 The Swedish Welfare State 303 Same-Sex Marriage 325 A Canadian Doctor Diagnoses U.S. Health Care 396 Shifting Some Military Spending to Alternative Programs 414

a Closer Look William Graham Sumner and Social

Darwinism 12 Karl Marx and Self-Destruct Capitalism 22 Undemocratic Elections in a Democracy? 30

The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation’s War Against Malaria 57

Some Societal Benefits from Undocumented Workers 75

The Poorest Communities in the United States 114 Technology and Toxic Waste 129 Climategate 134 The Housing and Transportation

Affordability Index 152 It’s a Disaster for the Poor 164 Speaking to Students 192 “Bitches,” “Bunnies,” and “Biddies” 205 Jena Six 262 Adam Smith 301 The Upper Big Branch Mine Disaster:

Preventable? 314

Leaving Boys Behind? 357

Voices Your Fears, My Realities 231 Does the Doctor’s Gender Matter? 385 A Letter from Timothy McVeigh 405

Looking toward the Future Righting the Urban–Suburban Imbalance 109 Transit-Oriented Development 142 The Childswap Society: A Fable 432

Speaking to Students Got Privilege? Studying What It Means

to Be White 175 Racist Acts on Campus 192 Generational Forgetting 283 Moving Back Home 328 In-school Marketing 361 Recruiting an All-Volunteer Military 401

Box Features

xi

Preface

Social Problems, Fourteenth Edition, examines inherently interesting subjects such as cor-porate crime, racism, sexism, urban decay, poverty, health care, the changing economy, the politics of drugs, antigovernment movements, and terrorism. The typical book on social prob- lems describes these phenomena separately, using a variety of explanations. Students exposed to such a mélange of approaches might retain their interest in these problems, but they probably would complete the book with little grasp of how social problems are interrelated and society’s role in their creation and perpetuation. This book is different. The approach is consistently sociologi- cal. There is a coherent framework from which to analyze and understand society’s social problems.

The overarching goal in Social Problems, Fourteenth Edition, is to capture the imagina- tions of our readers. We want them not only to be interested in the topics but also to become enthusiastic about exploring the intricacies and mysteries of social life. We want them, moreover, to incorporate the sociological perspective into their explanatory repertoire. The sociological per- spective requires, at a minimum, acceptance of two fundamental assumptions. The first is that individuals are products of their social environ- ment. Who they are, what they believe, what they strive for, and how they feel about themselves are all dependent on other people and on the society in which they live. The incorporation of the so- ciological perspective requires that we examine the structure of society to understand such social problems as racism, poverty, and crime. This method, however, runs counter to the typical explanations people offer for social ills that tend to focus on individual behavior and choices. An observer cannot gain an adequate understanding

of racism, crime, poverty, or other social prob- lems by studying only bigots, criminals, and the poor. Therefore, we focus on the social structure to determine the underlying features of the social world in an effort to understand social problems.

Because the emphasis is on social structure, the reader is required to accept another fundamen- tal assumption of the sociological perspective. We refer to the adoption of a critical stance toward all social forms. Sociologists must ask these questions: How does the social system really work? Who has the power? Who benefits under the existing social arrangements, and who does not? We should also ask questions such as: Is the law neutral? Why are some drugs illegal and others, known to be harmful, legal? Why are so few organizations in the United States—which is characterized as a democracy—democratic? Is U.S. society a meri- tocratic one in which talent and effort combine to stratify people fairly? Questions such as these call into question existing myths, stereotypes, and of- ficial dogma. The critical examination of society demystifies and demythologizes. It sensitizes the individual to the inconsistencies present in soci- ety. But, most important, a critical stance toward social arrangements allows us to see their role in perpetuating social problems. In conclusion, the reader should be aware that we are not dispassion- ate observers of social problems.

Let us, then, briefly make our values more ex- plicit. We oppose social arrangements that prevent people from developing to their full potential. That is, we reject political and social repression, educational elitism, institutional barriers to racial and sexual equality, economic exploitation, and official indifference to human suffering. Stating these feelings positively, we favor equality of op- portunity, the right to dissent, social justice, an

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Preface xiii

economic system that minimizes inequality, and a political system that maximizes citizen input in decisions and provides for an adequate health care system and acceptable living conditions for all people. Obviously, we believe that U.S. society as currently organized falls short of what we con- sider to be an optimal society. The problem areas of U.S. society are the subjects of this edition. So, too, are structural arrangements around the globe that harm people.

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Organization of the Book The organizing theme of this book is that many aspects of social problems are conditions result- ing from cultural and social arrangements, in particular social problems resulting from wealth and power and the bias of our current system

(introduced in Part One). The focus is on power because the powerful, by making and enforcing the laws, create and define deviance. They de- termine which behaviors will be rewarded and which ones punished. The powerful influence public opinion, and they can attempt to solve so- cial problems or ignore them.

Part Two focuses on problems of people, location, and the environment. Specifically, we cover social problems resulting from population changes, both in the United States and globally. We end the section with a closer look at environ- mental problems arising from both population growth and cultural norms.

Part Three examines a crucial element of U.S. social structure: the various manifesta- tions of social inequality. It describes inequality based on wealth, race/ethnicity, gender, and disability.

Part Four examines the impact of social struc- ture on individuals. Deviant behavior is activity that violates the norms of an organization, commu- nity, or society. Consequently, deviance is cultur- ally defined and socially labeled. Certain behaviors are also labeled as deviant because they conflict with the interests of the powerful in society. Public policy, then, reflects the values and interests of those in power and is codified into law. Members of society are also taught how to respond to devi- ants. The law and these structured responses to de- viants are societal reactions that establish deviance in social roles; paradoxically, the degraded status that results from societal reactions reinforces the deviance that society seeks to control. Deviance, then, is fundamentally the result of social struc- ture. We examine these processes in relation to two types of deviance: crime and drug use.

Part Five describes problems found within five representative institutions: the economy, the family, the education system, the health care sys- tem, and the government.

The book concludes with a chapter that an- swers this question: What do we do about so- cial problems? The solutions may come from the

xiv Preface

bottom up—that is, people organize through hu- man agency to change social structures, or from the top down—social policies determined by the powerful.

New to This Edition Since the last edition of Social Problems was pub- lished, certain events have shaken U.S. society, and important trends have become even more significant, making a revision necessary. For example,

• The U.S. has ended its involvement in the Iraq war and is committed to do the same in Afghanistan. The U.S. budget for the mili- tary continues to rise. The threat of terrorism remains high globally, as evidenced by high- profile attacks in France and Belgium.

• World population continues to increase by about 80 million a year, almost all of the increase in poor countries.

• The U.S. population has moved past 320 mil- lion and will add another 120 million by 2050. At about 4 percent of the world’s popula- tion, the United States has an enormous envi- ronmental footprint—it is the second largest emitter of the world’s greenhouse gases and uses one-fourth of the world’s resources.

• Racial/ethnic minorities will be the numeri- cal majority in the United States by 2042. Immigration increases racial/ethnic tensions and conflicts in some parts of the nation. Growing conflicts between the police and minority groups have sparked protests and discussions about racial discrimination.

• Politics in the United States has become more and more polarized, resulting in factions unwilling to compromise.

• The Supreme Court has ruled that money is a form of speech and therefore cannot be curtailed in politics. As a consequence, money from large organizations and wealthy

individuals is swamping elections and mak- ing a mockery of democracy.

• Although some large cities in the United States are showing signs of vigor, many are troubled with growing dependent popula- tions, shrinking job markets, increasing racial tensions, and declining economic resources to meet their problems.

• The economy continues its massive trans- formation from a manufacturing economy to one based on service/knowledge. This causes disruptions as some companies fail while others succeed. Globalization, with jobs and tasks moving outside the country, adds to the unemployment woes accompany- ing the economic transformation.

• The Great Recession hit in 2007 and caused havoc on Wall Street, Main Street, and in families. Unemployment rose precipitously. Wall Street tumbled. The value of housing dropped, causing bankruptcies and foreclo- sures. The effects of the Recession continue to affect U.S. families.

• Government bailouts of the banks and recov- ery efforts such as an economic stimulus, plus the cost of conducting two wars, raised the national debt dramatically to $19 trillion by 2016. This huge debt provides a rationale to limit government by reducing or eliminat- ing social welfare programs.

• ObamaCare has been upheld by the Supreme Court. The public is divided on this health care reform.

This fourteenth edition of Social Problems consid- ers each of these important trends and events as well as others. Some of the topics new to this edition are:

• Expanded discussion of the concentration of corporate wealth

• The Occupy Wall Street movement

• Islamophobia

Preface xv

• Increasing tensions over immigration

• The drought in California

• Corporate polluters and lobbying

• Increasing tension between the public and the police after a series of deaths of Black men at the hands of police

• The Black Lives Matter movement

• Campus incidents of racism

• Transgender and intersex issues

• Marijuana legalization: lessons from Colorado

• The growing gap between the rich and poor

• Same-sex marriage court ruling

• The controversy over Common Core Standards

• Affordable Care Act statistics

• Terrorism in France

Six types of feature boxes are included:

• Voices boxes provide the personal views of those affected by a social problem.

• A Closer Look elaborates on a topic in detail.

• Social Problems in Global Perspective boxes illustrate how other societies deal with a par- ticular social problem. This global emphasis is also evident in panels and tables that com- pare the United States with other nations on such topics as crime/incarceration, medical care, and education.

• Social Policy boxes look at policy issues and highlight social policies that work to alleviate particular social problems.

• Looking Toward the Future boxes examine trends concerning the social problems under consideration at the beginning of a new millennium.

• Speaking to Students boxes address issues especially pertinent to college students.

Also included are:

• End-of-chapter Chapter Reviews and Key Terms.

Note on Language Usage In writing this book, we have been especially sen- sitive to our use of language. Language is used to reflect and maintain the secondary status of social groups by defining them, diminishing them, trivi- alizing them, or excluding them. For example, traditional English uses masculine words (man, mankind, he) to refer to people in general. Even in the ordering of masculine and feminine or of Whites and Blacks within the discussion, one cat- egory consistently preceding its counterpart sub- tly conveys the message that the one listed first is superior to the other. In short, our goal is to use language so that it does not create the impression that one social class, race, or gender is superior to any other.

The terms of reference for racial and eth- nic categories are changing. In Social Problems, Fourteenth Edition, we use the terms Blacks and African Americans interchangeably, and Hispanics and Latinos interchangeably.

Also, we try to avoid the use of America or American society when referring to the United States. America should be used only in refer- ence to the entire Western Hemisphere: North, Central, and South America (and then, in the plu- ral, Americas). Its use as a reference to only the United States implies that the other nations of the Western Hemisphere have no place in our frame of reference.

Supplements

instructor’s Manual and test Bank Each chap- ter in the Instructor’s Manual includes the fol- lowing resources: Chapter Summary, Learning Objectives, Critical Thinking Questions, Activities for Classroom Participation, and Suggested Films. Designed to make your lec- tures more effective and to save preparation time, this extensive resource gathers together useful activities and strategies for teaching your Social Problems course. Also included in

xvi Preface

this manual is a test bank of more than 1,500 multiple-choice, true/false, and essay ques- tions. The Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank is available to adopters for download from the Pearson Instructors Resource Center at www. pearsonhighered.com.

Mytest This computerized software allows in- structors to create their own personalized exams, to edit any or all of the existing test questions, and to add new questions. Other special features of this program include random generation of test questions, creation of alternate versions of the same test, scrambling question sequence, and test preview before printing. For easy access, this soft- ware is available for download from the Pearson Instructors Resource Center at www.pearsonhigh- ered.com.

PowerPoint Presentations The PowerPoint presentations for Social Problems, Fourteenth Edition, are informed by instructional and de- sign theory. You have the option in every chapter of choosing from any of the following types of slides: Lecture, Line Art, and Image PowerPoints. The Lecture PowerPoint slides follow the chapter outline and feature images from the textbook integrated with the text. Additionally, all of the PowerPoints are uniquely designed to present concepts in a clear and succinct way. They are available to adopters for download from the Pearson Instructors Resource Center at www. pearsonhighered.com.

Acknowledgments We thank the following reviewers of the previ- ous editions of Social Problems for their helpful comments:

Payton Andrews, Cape Fear Community College

Ernestine Avila, California State University, San Bernardino

Leonard Beeghley, University of Florida Moshe ben Asher, California State University,

Northridge Deva Chopyak, Cosmunes River College Moushumi Choudhury, Michigan State

University Jesse Goldstein, Baruch College Jeanne Humble, Bluegrass Community

& Technical College Gary Hytrek, California State University,

Long Beach Marguerite Marin, Gonzaga University Dana Mayhew, Bristol Community College Mark Miller, East Texas Baptist University Adrienne Trier-Bieniek, Western Michigan

University J. Russel Willis, Grambling State University

Many people were involved in the development and production of this book from start to finish. From Ohlinger Publishing, we thank Erin Bosco, Marita Bley, Joseph Croscup, and most especially Maggie Barbieri for her careful reading of the book and helpful suggestions. From Integra, we thank Gina Linko, Project Manager. And a very special thanks to our friend and longtime user of Social Problems, Laurel Davis-Delano, Springfield College, for her thoughtful and helpful critiques of previous editions. We also especially want to thank our families for their ongoing support.

D. Stanley Eitzen Maxine Baca Zinn Kelly Eitzen Smith

The test of our progress is not whether we add more to the abundance of those who have much, it is whether we provide enough for those who have too little.

—Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Second Inaugural Address, 1937

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1

Part 1 The Political Economy of Social Problems

Learning Objectives

1.1 Understand the major social trends facing Americans and their potential consequences.

1.2 Explain the complex nature of defining a social problem.

1.3 Explain and apply the sociological imagination to different social problems.

1.4 Understand the four basic research designs and research methods that sociologists use to study social problems.

Chapter 1

The Sociological Approach to Social Problems

2 Chapter 1

An Introduction to Social Issues 1.1 Understand the major social trends facing Americans and their

potential consequences.

The official population of the United States surpassed 321 million in 2015. With a net gain of one person every twelve seconds, the United States’ population is projected to reach more than 416 million by 2060. What will life in the United States be like with an additional 100 million people? Will the problems of today be eliminated or reduced, or will they have worsened? Consider the following social trends:

Immigration and the browning of America. Immigration from Latin America and Asia is fueling population growth. By 2042, the race/ethnicity mix will be such that racial minorities will surpass Whites as the numerical majority. The increasing numbers of racial minorities will likely fuel racial/ethnic unrest among them as they experience discrimination and low-paying, demeaning jobs and among the native-born, who fear that the low wages of recent immigrants either take away their jobs or keep their wages low. With the additional millions of immigrants add- ed in the coming decades, previously White rural areas and small towns will begin to deal with the challenges of new ethnic and racial residents.

The graying of America. After 2030, one in five U.S. residents will be at least 65 (similar to the proportion in Florida today). The increase in the number of elderly will cause problems with funding Social Security and Medicare, placing a greater burden on the young to support the elderly through these programs. This divide between workers who support the old with payroll taxes will have both racial and generational dimensions because the workers will be increasingly people of color and the elderly overwhelmingly White (Harden, 2006).

The widening inequality gap and the plight of the poor. Today, the wealth and income of the affluent grows rapidly while the income of workers languishes. The inequality gap now is at record levels, resulting in a diminished middle class. As the middle class is squeezed, the trend is for more downward mobility rather than upward mobility.

At the bottom of the class system, nearly one in seven Americans is poor: 45.3  million Americans were “officially” poor in 2013. The government consid- ers those with incomes at or below 50 percent of the poverty level to be “severely poor.” In 2013, 19.9 million Americans were in this category. In the coming dec- ades, how will poverty be addressed? The trend has been for the federal govern- ment to reduce “safety net” programs that help the poor, such as welfare to single mothers, nutrition programs, and Head Start, leading to speculation that the poor will always be with us, and their numbers will increase.

The increasing power of money to influence elections and public policy. A 2010 Supreme Court decision allows corporations and other organizations to spend unlimited amounts to elect or defeat political candidates. In a second ruling in 2014, the Supreme Court removed the aggregate limit on the amount individual donors can give to candidates, political action committees, and political par- ties. Individuals can thus spend millions to further their candidates and causes. Add to this the influence of organizations through their lobbyists to influence policies. The consequence of this inverse relationship between money and power

The Sociological Approach to Social Problems 3

is obvious. Where, we might ask, is the voice of the poor heard? What hap- pened to our democratic ideals?

Increasing globalization and the transfor- mation of the economy. The U.S. econ- omy has undergone a dramatic shift from one dominated by manufacturing to one now characterized by service occupations and the collection, storage, and dissemination of information. As a result of this transformation, relatively well-paid employment in manufactur- ing products such as automobiles has dwindled and been replaced with jobs in lower-paying service industries. Most of the manufacturing is now done in foreign countries where U.S. corporations produce the same products but with cheaper labor, lower taxes, and fewer govern- mental controls. Some services, such as research, accounting, and call centers, have also been transferred to overseas companies to increase profits. Currently, these trends have negatively affected U.S. workers by making their jobs more insecure and reducing or eliminating their benefits.

In the coming decades, as 100 million people are added and new technologies enhancing globalization are developed, will the working conditions and standard of living of U.S. workers decline or be enhanced?

Increasing threats to the environment. Currently, the United States, at about 4.5 percent of the world’s population, consumes one-fourth of the world’s energy, most particularly oil, and it is the world’s greatest producer of greenhouse gases, which cause global warming. Population increases lead to more traffic congestion, more suburban sprawl, and more landfills. Population growth also means greater demand for food, water, fossil fuels, timber, and other resources. At present, land is being converted for development (housing, schools, shop- ping centers, and roads) at about twice the rate of population growth. Adding another 100 million people with today’s habits (large houses, gas-guzzling trans- portation, suburban sprawl, and the consumption of products designed to be obsolete) will lead to an ecological wasteland. But perhaps recognition of the negative environmental impacts of current usage patterns will lead to our reduc- ing waste, finding alternative energy sources, making greater use of mass transit, increasing housing density, and finding other ways to sustain and even enhance the environment.

At the global level, the earth is warming because of human activities, most prominently the use of oil and other carbons. Global warming will have dis- astrous effects during this century—coastal flooding, shifting agricultural pat- terns, violent weather, spread of tropical diseases, and loss of biodiversity, to name a few.

Growing global inequality. While the United States’ population will increase by nearly 100 million before midcentury, the world will grow by 50 percent, adding 3 billion (for a total of 9 billion) people. Almost all of this growth will

The numbers seeking refuge in homeless shelters have increased dramatically in recent years.

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occur among the poorest nations. Today, an estimated 1.1 billion peo- ple are undernourished. Most do not have clean water and adequate sanitation. Half of the world’s people live on less than $2 a day, one-sixth on less than $1 a day. Diseases such as malaria, chronic diarrhea, Ebola, dengue, and parasites ravage hun- dreds of millions across the globe. At the other extreme, the richest nations live lavish lifestyles, consum- ing and wasting most of the world’s resources. Multinational corpora-

tions profit from exploiting the resources and labor of the poorest countries. This gap between the fortunate few and the impoverished, desperate masses contin- ues to widen.

The underdeveloped world, already in dire straits, will face enormous obstacles in providing the minimum of food, water, housing, and medical attention for their peoples as they add billions in population. The result will be ever-greater numbers of desperate people on this planet, making the world less safe. Unless the affluent nations and international organizations make structural changes to aid the underde- veloped countries, conflicts over scarce resources will increase, as will sectarian and tribal violence and acts of terrorism. Although the United States is considered one of the wealthiest nations, see Table 1.1 for a summary of social problems experienced by children.

An increasingly dangerous world. September 11, 2001, unleashed a chain of negative events. Those terrorist acts on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon caused death and destruction and redirected government policies. The United States responded with a war on Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan and a preemptive war on Iraq, presumably to squelch terrorism and spread democracy throughout the Middle East. To fight the war on terror, the United States suspended the civil rights of prisoners, including their protection from the use of techniques that many would define as torture, and spied on American citizens. Suicide bombers (the “guided missiles” of the militarily weak) have destabilized the Middle East and threaten terror worldwide. There is the growing threat of nuclear proliferation, most nota- bly from North Korea and Iran. As the world’s population soars, with its conse- quent poverty, hunger, water shortages, disease, and political chaos, the United States will be increasingly unsafe. Will we face these incredible problems and find solutions? That is the ultimate question.

These issues highlight the social problems addressed in this book. Although the focus is on the problematic side of social life, our hope is that readers will find this exploration intriguing, insightful, and useful.

More than one billion people worldwide do not have access to safe drinking water.

The Sociological Approach to Social Problems 5

Defining Social Problems 1.2 Explain the complex nature of defining a social problem.

Typically, social problems have been thought of as social situations that a large number of observers felt were inappropriate and needed remedying. Early U.S. sociologists applied a medical model to the analysis of society to assess whether some pathology was present. Using what were presumed to be universal criteria of normality, sociologists commonly assumed social problems resulted from “bad” people—maladjusted people who were abnormal because of mental deficiency, men- tal disorder, lack of education, or incomplete socialization. These social pathologists, because they assumed the basic norms of society are universally held, viewed social problems as behaviors or social arrangements that disturb the moral order. For them, the moral order of U.S. society defined such behaviors as alcoholism, suicide, theft, and murder as social problems.

Sociologists in the 1920s and 1930s began to focus more broadly on the conditions of society that fostered problems. Societies undergoing rapid change from the pro- cesses of migration, urbanization, and industrialization were thought to have pockets of social disorganization. Certain areas of the cities undergoing the most rapid change, for example, were found to have disproportionately high rates of crime, family break- downs, and mental disorders.

Table 1.1 How America Ranks Among Industrialized Countries in Investing in and Protecting Children

Source: Courtesy of The Children’s Defense Fund.

Are America’s Children Ready to Compete in the Global Arena?

1st in gross domestic product 1st in number of billionaires Second to worst in child poverty rates (just ahead of Romania) Largest gap between the rich and the poor

1st in military spending 1st in military weapons exports 1st in number of people incarcerated Worst in protecting children against gun violence

30th in preschool enrollment rates 24th in reading scores for 15-year-olds 28th in science scores for 15-year-olds 36th in math scores for 15-year-olds

1st in health expenditures 25th in low birthweight rates 26th in immunization rates 31st in infant mortality rates Second to worst in teenage births (just ahead of Bulgaria)

The U.S. is the only country in the world besides Somalia—which lacks a legally constituted government—that has failed to ratify the U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child.

If we compare Black child well-being in America to child well-being in other nations, according to UNICEF:

• 72 nations have lower infant mortality rates including Sri Lanka, Cuba, and Romania.

• 132 nations have a lower incidence of low birthweight including the Congo, Cambodia, and Guatemala.

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In the past few decades, many sociologists have returned to a study of problem individuals—deviants who violate the expectations of society. The modern study of deviance developed in two directions. The first sought the sources of deviation within the social structure. Sociologists saw deviance as the result of conflict between the culturally prescribed goals of society (such as material success) and the obstacles to obtaining them that some groups of people face. The other, of relatively recent origin, has focused on the role of society in creating and sustaining deviance through labeling those people viewed as abnormal. Societal reactions are viewed as the key in deter- mining what a social problem is and who is deviant.

The Objective and Subjective Nature of Social Problems There is an objective reality of social problems. In other words, conditions in society (such as poverty and institutional racism) induce material or psychic suffering for certain segments of the population; sociocultural phenomena prevent a significant number of societal participants from developing and using their full potential; dis- crepancies exist between what a country such as the United States is supposed to stand for (equality of opportunity, justice, democracy) and the actual conditions in which many of its people live; and people are fouling their own nests through pollu- tion and the indiscriminate use of natural resources. This objective approach assumes that some kinds of actions are likely to be judged a problem in any context. Therefore, one goal of this book is to identify, describe, and explain situations that are objective social problems.

There are several dangers, however, in defining social problems objectively. The most obvious is that subjectivity is always present. To identify a phenomenon as a problem implies that it falls short of some standard. But what standards are to be used? Will the standards of society suffice? In a pluralistic society such as the United States, there is no uniform set of guidelines. People from different social strata and other social locations (such as region, occupation, race, and age) differ in their per- ceptions of what a social problem is and, once defined, how it should be solved. Is marijuana use a social problem? Is pornography? Is the relatively high rate of military spending a social problem? Is abortion a social problem? There is little consensus in U.S. society on these and other issues. All social observers, then, must be aware of the subjective nature of social problems.

In defining social problems, we must also guard against the tendency to accept the definitions of social problems provided by those in power. Because the power- ful—the agencies of government, business, and the media—provide the statistical data (such as crime rates), they may define social reality in a way that manipulates public opinion, thereby controlling behaviors that threaten the status quo (and their power). The congruence of official biases and public opinion can be seen in historical examples. Slavery, for instance, was not considered a social problem by the power- ful in the South, but slave revolts were. In colonial New England, the persecution of witches was not a social problem, but the witches were. From the standpoint of U.S. government, dispossessing Native Americans of their lands was not a social problem, but the Native Americans who resisted were.

Thus, to consider as social problems only those occurrences so defined by the public is fraught with related dangers. First, to do so may mean overlooking condi- tions that are detrimental to a relatively powerless segment of the society. In other

Objective reality of social problems The notion that societal conditions harm certain segments of the population and therefore are social problems.

Subjective nature of social problems The idea that what is and what is not a social problem is a mat- ter of definition. Thus, social prob- lems vary by time and place.

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