ELABORATE TWO POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONS ABOUT THIS TOPICS:
1. How to Become and Better Listener. And John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address. Analysis, history and comments
2. Speaking to Inform, Persuade, Special Occasions. Inform about: Objects, Processes, Events, and Concepts
Using only the book “The Art of Public Speaking” by Stephen Lucas.
Find the topics on the book and make a summ
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9 780073 406732
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ISBN 978-0-07-340673-2 MHID 0-07-340673-2
www.mhhe.com STEPHEN E. LUCAS 11e
SPeaking 11e
l u c a
S S P e a k in
g
connect to the eXPerience of public speaking
M D
D A
L IM
#1159640 08/31/11 C Y
A N
M A
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E L
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The Art of Public Speaking
S tephen E. L ucas University of Wisconsin–Madison
ELEVENTH EDITION
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Lucas, Stephen, 1946— The art of public speaking / Stephen E. Lucas. – 11th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-340673-2 (softcover : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-07-340673-2 (softcover : alk. paper) 1. Public speaking. I. Title. PN4129.15.L83 2011 808.5’1–dc23 2011035682
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Stephen E. Lucas is Professor of Communication Arts and Evjue-Bascom Professor in the Humanities at the Univer-sity of Wisconsin–Madison. He received his bachelor’s degree from the University of California, Santa Barbara, and
his ma s ter’s and doctorate degrees from Penn State University.
Professor Lucas has been recognized for his work as both
a scholar and a teacher. His first book, Po r tents of Rebellion: Rhetoric and Revolution in Philadelphia, 1765–1776, received the Golden Anniversary Award of the National Communication
Association and was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize. His major
articles include “The Schism in Rhetorical Scholarship” (1981),
“The Renaissance of American Public Address: Text and Co n-
text in Rhetorical Criticism” (1988), “The Stylistic Artistry of
the Declaration of Independence” (1990), and “The Rhetorical
Ancestry of the Declaration of Independence” (1998), for which
he received the Golden Ann i versary Monograph Award of the
National Communication Association. His most recent book is
Words of a Century: The Top 100 American Speeches, 1900–1999 (2009).
Professor Lucas has received a number of teaching awards, including
the Chancellor’s Award for Exce l lence in Teaching at the University of
Wisconsin and the National Communication Association’s Donald Ecroyd
Award for Outstanding Teaching in Higher Education. His lecture course on
“The Rhetoric of Ca m paigns and Revolutions” is among the most popular
on campus and has twice been selected for statewide broa d cast in its
entirety by Wisconsin Public Radio. Professor Lucas is featured in the
Educational Video Group’s program on the hi s t o ry of American public
address, and he has appeared on the History Channel’s documentary on
the Declaration of Independence.
Professor Lucas has directed the introductory public speaking course
at the University of Wisconsin–Madison since 1973. Over the years he has
been responsible for numerous teaching innovations and has supe r vised
the training of hundreds of graduate assistants. In addition to participating
in public speaking workshops and colloquia at schools throughout the
United States, he has served as a judge for the major n a tional English-
language public speaking competitions in China, has lectured at numerous
Chinese universities, and has co n ducted workshops for Chinese instructors
on teaching public speaking. The Art of Public Speaking has been published in China both in translation and in English editions.
Stephen Lucas and his wife, Patty, live in Madison, Wisconsin, and have
two sons, Jeff and Ryan. His inte r ests include travel, sports, art, and
photography.
About the Author
iii
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iv
Contents in Brief SPEAKING AND LISTENING
1 Speaking in Public 3
2 Ethics and Public Speaking 29
3 Listening 47
4 Giving Your First Speech 63
SPEECH PREPARATION: GETTING STARTED
5 Selecting a Topic and a Purpose 77
6 Analyzing the Audience 97
7 Gathering Materials 119
8 Supporting Your Ideas 141
SPEECH PREPARATION: ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING
9 Organizing the Body of the Speech 165
10 Beginning and Ending the Speech 185
11 Outlining the Speech 205
PRESENTING THE SPEECH
12 Using Language 221
13 Delivery 239
14 Using Visual Aids 259
VARIETIES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
15 Speaking to Inform 277
16 Speaking to Persuade 299
17 Methods of Persuasion 325
18 Speaking on Special Occasions 353
19 Speaking in Small Groups 365
APPENDIX Speeches for Analysis and Discussion A1
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Contents A Note from the Author xvi
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxii
Reviewers, Symposium and Focus-Group Participants, and Contributors xxiii
PART ONE SPEAKING AND LISTENING
Chapter 1� Speaking in Public 3 The Power of Public Speaking 4
The Tradition of Public Speaking 5
Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation 6
Differences Between Public Speaking and Conversation 8
Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class 9
Nervousness Is Normal 9
Dealing with Nervousness 10
Public Speaking and Critical Thinking 16
The Speech Communication Process 18
Speaker 18
Message 18
Channel 19
Listener 19
Feedback 20
Interference 20
Situation 21
The Speech Communication Process: Example with
Commentary 21
Public Speaking in a Multicultural World 22
Cultural Diversity in the Modern World 22
Cultural Diversity and Public Speaking 23
Avoiding Ethnocentrism 24
Chapter 2� Ethics and Public Speaking 29 The Importance of Ethics 30
Guidelines for Ethical Speaking 31
Make Sure Your Goals Are Ethically Sound 31
Be Fully Prepared for Each Speech 32
Be Honest in What You Say 33
Avoid Name-Calling and Other Forms of Abusive Language 34
Put Ethical Principles into Practice 35
Plagiarism 37
Global Plagiarism 37
Patchwork Plagiarism 38
Incremental Plagiarism 38
Plagiarism and the Internet 40
v
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vi CONTENTS
Chapter 3 �Listening 47 Listening Is Important 48
Listening and Critical Thinking 49
Four Causes of Poor Listening 50
Not Concentrating 50
Listening Too Hard 50
Jumping to Conclusions 51
Focusing on Delivery and Personal Appearance 52
How to Become a Better Listener 53
Take Listening Seriously 53
Be an Active Listener 53
Resist Distractions 55
Don’t Be Diverted by Appearance or Delivery 56
Suspend Judgment 56
Focus Your Listening 56
Develop Note-Taking Skills 58
PART TWO SPEECH PREPARATION: GETTING STARTED
Chapter 5 � Selecting a Topic and a Purpose 77
Choosing a Topic 78
Topics You Know a Lot About 78
Topics You Want to Know More About 79
Brainstorming for Topics 80
Chapter 4 � Giving Your First Speech 63 Preparing Your Speech 64
Developing the Speech 64
Organizing the Speech 66
Delivering Your Speech 67
Speaking Extemporaneously 68
Rehearsing the Speech 69
Presenting the Speech 70
Sample Speeches with Commentary 71
Guidelines for Ethical Listening 41
Be Courteous and Attentive 41
Avoid Prejudging the Speaker 42
Maintain the Free and Open Expression of Ideas 42
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CONTENTS viiCOO
Chapter 6 � Analyzing the Audience 97
Audience-Centeredness 98
Your Classmates as an Audience 99
The Psychology of Audiences 100
Demographic Audience Analysis 101
Age 102
Gender 102
Religion 103
Sexual Orientation 104
Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural Background 104
Group Membership 105
Situational Audience Analysis 106
Size 106
Physical Setting 106
Disposition Toward the Topic 107
Disposition Toward the Speaker 108
Disposition Toward the Occasion 109
Getting Information About the Audience 110
Adapting to the Audience 113
Audience Adaptation Before the Speech 113
Audience Adaptation During the Speech 114
Determining the General Purpose 82
Determining the Specific Purpose 82
Tips for Formulating the Specific Purpose Statement 84
Questions to Ask About Your Specific Purpose 86
Phrasing the Central Idea 89
What Is the Central Idea? 89
Guidelines for the Central Idea 90
Chapter 7 �Gathering Materials 119 Using Your Own Knowledge and Experience 120
Doing Library Research 120
Librarians 120
The Catalogue 121
Reference Works 121
Newspaper and Periodical Databases 122
Academic Databases 123
Searching the Internet 124
Search Engines 124
Specialized Research Resources 125
Evaluating Internet Documents 127
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viii CONTENTS
PART THREE SPEECH PREPARATION: ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING
Chapter 9 � Organizing the Body of the Speech 165
Organization Is Important 166
Main Points 166
Number of Main Points 168
Strategic Order of Main Points 169
Tips for Preparing Main Points 174
Supporting Materials 175
Connectives 177
Transitions 177
Internal Previews 178
Internal Summaries 178
Signposts 178
Interviewing 129
Before the Interview 130
During the Interview 131
After the Interview 132
Tips for Doing Research 133
Start Early 133
Make a Preliminary Bibliography 133
Take Notes Efficiently 134
Think About Your Materials as You Research 136
Chapter 8 �Supporting Your Ideas 141 Examples 142
Brief Examples 143
Extended Examples 143
Hypothetical Examples 144
Tips for Using Examples 144
Statistics 147
Understanding Statistics 148
Tips for Using Statistics 151
Testimony 155
Expert Testimony 155
Peer Testimony 155
Quoting Versus Paraphrasing 156
Tips for Using Testimony 156
Citing Sources Orally 159
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CONTENTS ix
Chapter 10 � Beginning and Ending the Speech 185
The Introduction 186
Get Attention and Interest 186
Reveal the Topic 192
Establish Credibility and Goodwill 192
Preview the Body of the Speech 194
Sample Introduction with Commentary 195
Tips for the Introduction 196
The Conclusion 196
Signal the End of the Speech 196
Reinforce the Central Idea 198
Sample Conclusion with Commentary 201
Tips for the Conclusion 202
Chapter 11 � Outlining the Speech 205 The Preparation Outline 206
Guidelines for the Preparation Outline 206
Sample Preparation Outline with Commentary 210
The Speaking Outline 213
Guidelines for the Speaking Outline 214
Sample Speaking Outline with Commentary 216
PART FOUR PRESENTING THE SPEECH
Chapter 12 �Using Language 221 Meanings of Words 222
Using Language Accurately 223
Using Language Clearly 224
Use Familiar Words 224
Choose Concrete Words 225
Eliminate Clutter 226
Using Language Vividly 227
Imagery 228
Rhythm 230
Using Language Appropriately 232
Appropriateness to the Occasion 233
Appropriateness to the Audience 233
Appropriateness to the Topic 233
Appropriateness to the Speaker 234
A Note on Inclusive Language 234
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x CONTENTS
Chapter 13 � Delivery 239 What Is Good Delivery? 240
Methods of Delivery 240
Reading from a Manuscript 241
Reciting from Memory 241
Speaking Impromptu 241
Speaking Extemporaneously 242
The Speaker’s Voice 243
Volume 244
Pitch 244
Rate 244
Pauses 245
Vocal Variety 245
Pronunciation 246
Articulation 246
Dialect 247
The Speaker’s Body 248
Personal Appearance 248
Movement 249
Gestures 250
Eye Contact 250
Practicing Delivery 251
Answering Audience Questions 252
Preparing for the Question-and-Answer Session 252
Managing the Question-and-Answer Session 253
Chapter 14 � Using Visual Aids 259 Kinds of Visual Aids 260
Objects and Models 260
Photographs and Drawings 260
Graphs 261
Charts 263
Video 264
The Speaker 264
PowerPoint 265
Guidelines for Preparing Visual Aids 267
Prepare Visual Aids Well in Advance 267
Keep Visual Aids Simple 267
Make Sure Visual Aids Are Large Enough 267
Use a Limited Amount of Text 267
Use Fonts Effectively 268
Use Color Effectively 269
Use Images Strategically 269
Guidelines for Presenting Visual Aids 270
Display Visual Aids Where Listeners Can See Them 270
Avoid Passing Visual Aids Among the Audience 271
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CONTENTS xi
PART FIVE VARIETIES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Chapter 15 �Speaking to Inform 277 Types of Informative Speeches: Analysis and Organization 278
Speeches About Objects 278
Speeches About Processes 280
Speeches About Events 282
Speeches About Concepts 284
Guidelines for Informative Speaking 286
Don’t Overestimate What the Audience Knows 286
Relate the Subject Directly to the Audience 287
Don’t Be Too Technical 289
Avoid Abstractions 290
Personalize Your Ideas 291
Be Creative 293
Sample Speech with Commentary 293
Display Visual Aids Only While Discussing Them 271
Explain Visual Aids Clearly and Concisely 272
Talk to Your Audience, Not to Your Visual Aid 272
Practice with Your Visual Aids 273
Check the Room and Equipment 274
Chapter 16 �Speaking to Persuade 299 The Importance of Persuasion 300
Ethics and Persuasion 300
The Psychology of Persuasion 301
The Challenge of Persuasive Speaking 301
How Listeners Process Persuasive Messages 302
The Target Audience 304
Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Fact 305
What Are Questions of Fact? 305
Analyzing Questions of Fact 305
Organizing Speeches on Questions of Fact 306
Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value 307
What Are Questions of Value? 307
Analyzing Questions of Value 307
Organizing Speeches on Questions of Value 308
Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy 309
What Are Questions of Policy? 309
Types of Speeches on Questions of Policy 309
Analyzing Questions of Policy 311
Organizing Speeches on Questions of Policy 313
Sample Speech with Commentary 318
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xii CONTENTS
Chapter 18 � Speaking on Special Occasions 353
Speeches of Introduction 354
Speeches of Presentation 356
Speeches of Acceptance 358
Commemorative Speeches 358
Chapter 17 �Methods of Persuasion 325 Building Credibility 326
Factors of Credibility 326
Types of Credibility 327
Enhancing Your Credibility 328
Using Evidence 330
How Evidence Works: A Case Study 331
Tips for Using Evidence 332
Reasoning 334
Reasoning from Specific Instances 335
Reasoning from Principle 336
Causal Reasoning 337
Analogical Reasoning 337
Fallacies 338
Appealing to Emotions 342
What Are Emotional Appeals? 343
Generating Emotional Appeal 344
Ethics and Emotional Appeal 345
Sample Speech with Commentary 346
Chapter 19 �Speaking in Small Groups 365 What Is a Small Group? 366
Leadership in Small Groups 367
Kinds of Leadership 367
Functions of Leadership 368
Responsibilities in a Small Group 369
Commit Yourself to the Goals of Your Group 369
Fulfill Individual Assignments 370
Avoid Interpersonal Conflicts 371
Encourage Full Participation 371
Keep the Discussion on Track 372
The Reflective-Thinking Method 373
Define the Problem 373
Analyze the Problem 374
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CONTENTS xiii
Establish Criteria for Solutions 375
Generate Potential Solutions 376
Select the Best Solution 377
Presenting the Recommendations of the Group 378
Oral Report 378
Symposium 379
Panel Discussion 379
Appendix� Speeches for Analysis and Discussion A1
I Have a Dream Martin Luther King, Jr. A2
Ramadan A5
The Horrors of Puppy Mills A7
Bursting the Antibacterial Bubble A9
My Crazy Aunt Sue A11
Questions of Culture Sajjid Zahir Chinoy A13
Notes N1
Photo Credits C1
Index I1
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xiv CONTENTS
SPEECHES
There’s an App for That (Sample Speech with Commentary) 72
Fork in the Road (Sample Speech with Commentary) 73
Surrounded by Stuff (Sample Introduction with Commentary) 195
Surrounded by Stuff (Sample Conclusion with Commentary) 201
Service Dogs (Sample Preparation Outline with Commentary) 211
Service Dogs (Sample Speaking Outline with Commentary) 216
Medical Robots: From Science Fiction to Science Fact (Sample Speech with Commentary) 294
Phony Pharmaceuticals (Sample Speech with Commentary) 318
The Dangers of Cell Phones (Sample Speech with Commentary) 346
Presenting the Congressional Gold Medal Bill Clinton 357
Accepting the Congressional Gold Medal Nelson Mandela 358
Elie Wiesel 361
I Have a Dream Martin Luther King, Jr. A2
Ramadan A5
The Horrors of Puppy Mills A7
Bursting the Antibacterial Bubble A9
My Crazy Aunt Sue A11
Questions of Culture Sajjid Zahir Chinoy A13
SPEECHES BY GENRE
INTRODUCTORY SPEECHES
Self-Introduction
There’s an App for That (Sample Speech with Commentary) 72
Introducing a Classmate
Fork in the Road (Sample Speech with Commentary) 73
INFORMATIVE SPEECHES
Surrounded by Stuff (Sample Introduction with Commentary) 195
Surrounded by Stuff (Sample Conclusion with Commentary) 201
Service Dogs (Sample Preparation Outline with Commentary) 211
Service Dogs (Sample Speaking Outline with Commentary) 216
Medical Robots: From Science Fiction to Science Fact (Sample Speech with Commentary) 294
Ramadan A5
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CONTENTS xv
PERSUASIVE SPEECHES
Phony Pharmaceuticals (Sample Speech with Commentary) 318
The Dangers of Cell Phones (Sample Speech with Commentary) 346
The Horrors of Puppy Mills A7
Bursting the Antibacterial Bubble A9
SPEECHES OF PRESENTATION
Presenting the Congressional Gold Medal Bill Clinton 357
SPEECHES OF ACCEPTANCE
Accepting the Congressional Gold Medal Nelson Mandela 358
COMMEMORATIVE SPEECHES
Elie Wiesel 361
I Have a Dream Martin Luther King, Jr. A2
My Crazy Aunt Sue A11
Questions of Culture Sajjid Zahir Chinoy A13
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T he Art of Public Speaking will pass its 30th anniversary in the course of this edition. When I wrote the first edition, I could not have imag-ined the extraordinary response the book would receive. I am deeply appreciative of the st u dents and teachers who have made it the leading
work on its subject at colleges and universities across the United States
and around the world.
In preparing this edition, I have retained what readers have identified
as the main strengths of the book. The Art of Public Speaking is informed by classical and contemporary theories of rhetoric, but it does not pr e sent
theory for its own sake. Keeping a steady eye on the practical skills of
public speaking, it offers full cove r age of all major aspects of speech prep-
aration and presentation.
It also follows David Hume’s advice that one “who would teach elo-
quence must do it chiefly by examples.” Whenever possible, I have tried to
show the principles of public speaking in action in addition to descri b ing them. Thus you will find in the book a large number of narratives, speech
excerpts, and full sample speeches that illustrate the principles of effective
public speaking.
Because the immediate task facing students is to present speeches in
the classroom, I rely heavily on e x amples that relate directly to students’
classroom needs and experiences. The speech classroom, however, is a
training ground where students develop skills that will serve them through-
out life. Therefore, I also include a large number of illustrations drawn from
the kinds of speaking experiences students will face after they grad u ate
from college.
Because speeches are performative acts, students need to be able to
view speakers in action as well as read their words on the printed page.
The Art of Public Speaking has an extensive video program that is available both on DVD and on Connect Public Speaking, the book’s innovative online learning platform. The video program i n cludes 27 full student speeches,
plus more than 60 speech excerpts. Nine of the full speeches and more
than 25 of the e x cerpts are new to this edition.
Connect also provides a wide range of teaching and learning resources in addition to the speech videos. These resources include hands-on study
tools, critical-thinking exercises, speech analysis questions, worksheets,
a s sessment forms, and more. Taken together, the book and Connect pro- vide an interactive public speaking pr o gram that meets the needs of stu-
dents and teachers alike.
The Art of Public Speaking has changed over the years in response to changes in technology, student demographics, and instructional needs. But
it has never lost sight of the fact that the most important part of speaking
is thinking. The ability to think critically is vital to a world in which person-
ality and image too often substitute for thought and substance. While help-
ing students become capable, responsible speakers, The Art of Public Speaking also seeks to help them become capable, responsible thinkers.
A Note from the Author
xvi
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FEATURES OF THE ELEVENTH EDITION
The eleventh edition of The Art of Public Speaking builds on its predecessors with expanded coverage in key areas that students find most challenging— plunging into the first speech, avoiding fallacies, using supporting materials properly, citing sources orally, developing and presenting visual aids, and taking public speaking from classroom to career. These content revisions are combined with a thorough revision of Connect Public Speaking, the pathbrea k ing online learning platform for The Art of Pub- lic Speaking at www.mcgraw-hillconnect.com . The book, Connect, and the other resources available with The Art of Public Speaking are all designed to work hand in hand. They provide an int e grated teaching and learning system that is without parallel among public speaking textbooks.
Helping students make the leap from principles to performance
THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING CONNECTS STUDENTS TO THE PRACTICE OF PUBLIC SPEAKING. Clear, consistent coverage and a friendly, authoritative voice that speaks personably to students and gives them the principles they need to create and deliver dynamic public speeches.
Print and video examples show the principles of public speaking in action rather than just descri b ing them.
■ Every chapter of The Art of Public Speak- ing has been thoroughly revised to pre- sent relevant, easy-to-grasp real-world models that speak to the newest gen- eration of students.
■ Student speeches on DVD and on Con- nect provide models of major speech genres. There are a total of 27 full stu- dent speeches (9 new to this edition), including 5 “Needs Improvement” ver- sions. There are also more than 60 vid- eos (27 new to this edition) that illustrate specific skills and concepts from the book. Icons in the margins of the main text direct readers to the appropriate videos.
■ Written and narrated by Stephen E. Lucas, Introductions, Conclusions, and Visual Aids utilizes the pri n ciples of visual learning
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to reinforce key concepts from the book. Part One of this 30-minute DVD uses excerpts from a wide range of student speeches to illustrate the principles of effective introductions and conclusions. Part Two contains examples of speakers using a variety of visual aids and presentation m e dia.
LearnSmart, Connect’s adaptive diagnostic study tool, helps stu- dents absorb and internalize key ideas from the text. LearnSmart adapts to individual students and, based on their responses, identifies strengths and weaknesses in their grasp of course content. By tracking stu- dent responses, instructors can use class time to f o cus on subjects that stu- dents find most challenging.
Helping students apply principles discussed in the text to the creation of their own speeches
THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING CONNECTS STUDENTS TO CONFIDENCE IN PUBLIC SPEAKING.
Improved coverage of persuasive speaking. Chapter 16, “Speaking to Persuade,” includes many new exa m ples, including a new full speech with commentary. Chapter 17, “Methods of Persuasion,” has a revised discussion of reasoning, plus expanded coverage of fallacies and a new sample speech with commentary.
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A full chapter on “Giving Your First Speech” (Chapter 4). This chap- ter gives students the support they need to present their first speeches at the start of the term—long before most of the principles of public spea k ing have been covered in class. Two new sample speeches with commentary provide models of introductory prese n tations.
More on supporting ideas and source citation. In response to requests from instructors, Chapter 8 provides expanded coverage of how to use sup- porting materials and how to cite sources orally. Chapter 7 takes account of new developments in online research and provides criteria for assessing infor- mation gleaned from the Inte r net.
Revised chapter on visual aids (Chapter 14). Among other changes, the popular PowerPoint appendix has been integrated into the main chapter, providing more streamlined and up-to-date coverage of visual aids.
Interactive assignments and activities in Connect take online ped- agogy to a new level. The latest version of Connect offers a wide range of assignable and assessable online activities. These include exercises for critical thinking, speech videos with questions for analysis, scrambled outline exer- cises, chapter study que s tions, key-term dia g nostics, and speech checklists and worksheets.
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Strong connection between public speaking principles and real- world application. “Using Public Speaking in Your Career”
activities place students in realistic, professional scenarios and help them make the leap from clas s room to career.
Comprehensive chapter-ending pedagogy builds critical thinking skills. Each chapter contains review que s tions and exercises for critical thinking. The exer-
cises require students to work with—and to think about—skills and concepts covered in the chapter. They are vital to the integrated teaching and learning system that has helped make The Art of Public Speaking so successful.
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Student Workbook. This popular supplement contains exercises, check- lists, worksheets, evaluation forms, and other materials designed to help stu- dents master the principles of effective speechmaking presented in the text.
Helping novices gain practice time and become eff ective public speakers
THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING CONNECTS STUDENTS TO SUCCESS IN PUBLIC SPEAKING.
Speech Capture. This cutting-edge tool lets instructors evaluate speeches live, using a fully custo m izable rubric. Instructors can also upload speech videos on behalf of students, as well as create and manage peer r e view assig n ments. Stu- dents can upload their own videos for self-review and/or peer review.
Outline Tool, with enhanced user interface. The Outline Tool guides students systematically through the process of organizing and outlining their speeches. Instructors can customize parts of the outliner, and also turn it off if they don’t want their students to use it.
Topic Helper, as well as access to EasyBib and Survey Monkey online tools. The Topic Helper helps st u dents select a topic for speech assignments. EasyBib is a Web-based tool that automates the fo r matting of citations and bibliographies. Survey Monkey, also a Web-based tool, helps students create and ma n age audience-analysis questionnaires.
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RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTORS
The Art of Public Speaking has an exceptional set of instructional resources that provide a fully integrated, comprehensive teac h ing and learning program for instructors of all experience levels.
Easier online course management through Connect-Blackboard CMS integration. McGraw-Hill’s partne r ship with Blackboard allows for full integration of McGraw-Hill content and digital tools into Blackboard, fe a turing single sign-on capability for students and faculty.
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PREFACE xxi
Annotated Instructor’s Edition. The Annotated Instructor’s Edition pro- vides a wealth of teaching aids for each chapter in the book. It is also cross- referenced with Connect , the Instructor’s Manual , the Instructor’s R e source CD-ROM, and other supplements that accompany The Art of Public Speaking .
Instructor’s Manual. This comprehensive guide to teaching from The Art of Public Speaking contains su g gested course outlines and speaking assign- ments; chapter outlines; supplementary exercises and classroom a c tivities; feedback for all exercises and activities; and 45 additional speeches for discus- sion and analysis.
Test Bank. The Test Bank furnishes 2,600 examination questions based on The Art of Public Speaking.
PowerPoint Slides with Video Clips. Fully revised for this edition, more than 400 Powe r Point slides include text, photographs, illustrations, and video clips, and can be cu s tomized by instructors for lecture or discussion.
Online Learning Center. The Art of Public Speaking Online Learning Cen- ter, located at www.mhhe.com/lucas11e , enables teachers to download the full roster of teaching resources:
■ Instructor’s Manual
■ Test Bank (Microsoft Word files, as well as computerized EZTest versions)
■ PowerPoint slides
■ Teaching Public Speaking
■ Teaching Public Speaking Online, fully revised for the eleventh edition by Jennifer Cochrane of Indiana Unive r sity and Purdue University at Indianapolis
■ Handbook for Teachers of Non-Native Speakers of English
Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM. The Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, Power- Point slides, and other items in the O n line Learning Center are also available on this CD-ROM.
The Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, and PowerPoint slides are available on Connect, the Online Learning Ce n ter, and the Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
“’Tis the good reader,” said Ralph Waldo Emerson, “that makes the good book.” I have been fortunate to have very good readers indeed, and I would like to thank the reviewers, symposium and focus-group partic i pants, and co n- tributors whose names appear on pages xxiii–xxv for their expertise and help- ful comments and suggestions. In addition, I would like to express my gratitude both to the students at the University of Wisconsin whose speeches provided the material for many of the examples in the book and to members of the Communic a tion Arts 100 teaching staff who helped me by collecting sample speeches and by offering feedback on the tenth ed i tion. I am especially grateful to Sarah Jedd, assistant director of Communication Arts 100, for her splendid work in that capac i ty and for her many contributions to the book. Thanks go as well to Margaret Procario for her work on the Instructor’s Manual and the Test Bank; to Jennifer Cochrane for her supplement on using The Art of Public Speaking in an online course; and to Ashley Hinck, who helped with the research for this edition. Above all, I am indebted to Paul Stob, who worked with me on the book and supplements throughout the preparation of this edition. His contributions were indispens a ble. I also owe thanks to The Art of Public Speaking team at McGraw-Hill. David Patterson, Susan Gouijnstook, Mikola De Roo, Suzie Flores, and Jamie Daron joined the book this edition, and they have continued its trad i tion of excel- lence. Now in her fourth edition as marketing manager, Leslie Oberhuber continues to prove why she is one of the best in the business. Mike Ryan, Steve Debow, and Ed Stanford all provided exec u tive support and direction. In this day and age, publishing a textbook involves much more than the book itself. Working with the editorial team, Janet Byrne Smith and Adam Dweck skillfully managed the new version of Connect. Other members of the Connect team included Vicki Splaine, Debabrata Acharya, Pravarna Besa, Manish Gupta, Irina Reznick, Sanjay Shinde, Sujoy Banerjee, John Brady, Priscila Depano, Nidhi Kumari, and Suzy Cho. Meghan Campbell coordinated the addition of LearnSmart to the online resources. As production editor for the book, Carey Eisner handled a thousand details with skill and aplomb. Pr e ston Thomas oversaw the creation of a new design and cover. Natalia Peschiera coordinated the photo program, and Jennifer Blankenship located a wealth of images on a tight schedule. Vicki Malinee helped steer the suppl e ments through production. As always, my biggest debt is to my wife, Patty, whose love and support have sustained me through the years.
Stephen E. Lucas Madison, Wisconsin
xxii PREFACE
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REVIEWERS, SYMPOSIUM AND FOCUS-GROUP PARTICIPANTS, AND CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE xxiii
Main-Text Reviewers Bob Alexander, Bossier Parish Community College Barbara Armentrout, Central Piedmont Community
College Richard Armstrong, Wichita State University Gretchen Arthur, International Academy of Technology
and Design Leonard Assante, Volunteer State Community College Jennifer Becker, University of Missouri–Columbia Kimberly Berry, Ozarks Technical Community College Patrick Breslin, Santa Fe Community College Christa Brown, Minnesota State University–Mankato Ferald J. Bryan, Northern Illinois University Jack Byer, Bucks County Community College Richard Capp, Hill College Nick Carty, Dalton State University Mary Carver, University of Central Oklahoma Crystal Church, Cisco Junior College Jennifer Cochrane, Indiana University–Purdue
University, Indianapolis Shirley Lerch Crum, Coastal Carolina Community
College Karen Dwyer, University of Nebraska–Omaha Tracy Fairless, University of Central Oklahoma Rick Falvo, College of Lake County Bryan Fisher, Francis Marion University Bonnie Gabel, McHenry County College Paul Gaustad, Georgia Perimeter College Kevin Gillen, Indiana University Donna Gotch, California State University,
San Bernardino Catherine Gragg, San Jacinto College JoAnna Grant, California State University,
San Bernardino Neva Kay Gronert, Arapahoe Community College Omar Guevara, Weber State University Karen Hamburg, Camden Community College Tina M. Harris, University of Georgia Daria Heinemann, Keiser University Marcia Hotchkiss, Tennessee State University Delwyn Jones, Moraine Valley Community College Susan Kilgard, Anne Arundel Community College Amy King, Central Piedmont Community College Patricia King, McHenry County College Linda Kurz, University of Missouri–Kansas City Jerri Lynn Kyle, Missouri State University Kathleen LeBesco, Marymount Manhattan College Mark Lewis, Riverside Community College Sujanet Mason, Luzerne County Community College Peg McCree, Middle Tennessee State University Nicki L. Michalski, Lamar University Marjorie Keeshan Nadler, Miami University Ronn Norfleet, Kentucky Community and Technical
College System–Jefferson Community and Technical Co l lege
Kekeli Nuviadenu, Bethune-Cookman College Holly Payne, Western Kentucky University Theodore Petersen, Helmick Johnson Community College Jeff Peterson, Washington State University–Pullman James (Tim) Pierce, Northern Illinois University Jean R. Powers, Holmes Community College
Barry Poyner, Truman State University William Price, Georgia Perimeter College James E. Putz, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse Jennifer Reem, Nova Southeastern University Belinda Russell, Northeast Mississippi Community
College Diane Ryan, Tidewater Community College Rhona Rye, California State Polytechnic University,
Pomona Cara Schollenberger, Bucks County Community College Jay Self, Truman State University Michael J. Shannon, Moraine Valley Community College Gale Sharpe, San Jacinto College Richard Sisson, Georgia Perimeter College Amy R. Slagell, Iowa State University Katherine Taylor, University of Louisville Cindu Thomas-George, College of Lake County Joseph Valenzano, University of Nevada, Las Vegas Jill Voran, Anne Arundel Community College Linda J. White, Central Piedmont Community College Theresa White, Faulkner State Community College Alan Winson, John Jay College of Criminal Justice Carleen Yokotake, Leeward Community College
S ymposia and Regional Focus-Group Participants Donna Acerra, Northampton Community College Krista Appelquist, Moraine Valley Community College Vera Barkus, Kennedy-King College Barbara Baron, Brookdale Community College Mardia Bishop, University of Illinois–Champaign Audrey Bourne, North Idaho College Karen Braselton, Vincennes University Melissa Broeckelman-Post, California State University–
Los Angeles Cynthia Brown El, Macomb Community College,
Center Campus Kristin Bruss, University of Kansas–Lawrence Bobette Bushnell, Oregon State University Pamela Cannamore, Kennedy-King College Helen Chester, Milwaukee Area Technical College–
Milwaukee Jennifer Cochrane, Indiana University–Purdue
University, Indianapolis Jennifer Del Quadro, Northampton Community College Amber Erickson, University of Cincinnati Kris Galyen, University of Cincinnati Joan Geller, Johnson & Wales University Ava Good, San Jacinto College JoAnna Grant, California State University,
San Bernardino Delwyn Jones, Moraine Valley Community College Amy King, Central Piedmont Community College Bryan Kirby, Ivy Technical Community College, Indiana Steven Lebeau, Indiana University–Purdue University,
Indianapolis Cindy Leonard, Bluegrass Community and Technical
College, Main Campus Tobi Mackler, Montgomery County Community College Molly Mayer, University of Cincinnati James McCoy, College of Southern Nevada–Henderson
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Peg McCree, Middle Tennessee State University Libby McGlone, Columbus State Community College Delois Medhin, Milwaukee Area Technical College–
Milwaukee Stanley Moore, Henry Ford Community College Marjorie Keeshan Nadler, Miami University John Nash, Moraine Valley Community College Ronn Norfleet, Kentucky Community and Technical
College System–Jefferson Community and Technical Co l lege
Edward Panetta, University of Georgia Alexander Papp, Cuyahoga Community College Tim Pierce, Northern Illinois University Sunnye Pruden, Lone Star College, CyFair Jeff Przybylo, William Rainey Harper College Shawn Queeney, Bucks County Community College David Schneider, Saginaw Valley State University Mike Shannon, Moraine Valley Community College Amy R. Slagell, Iowa State University Karen Slawter, Northern Kentucky University Rick Soller, College of Lake County Cindu Thomas-George, College of Lake County Patrice Whitten, William Rainey Harper College Julie Williams, San Jacinto College Josie Wood, Chemeketa Community College Henry Young, Cuyahoga Community College
C onnect Board of Advisors Sam Arenivar, MiraCosta College Katherine Castle, University of Nebraska–Lincoln Jennifer Cochrane, Indiana University–Purdue
University, Indianapolis Rich Jones, Eastern Illinois University Bryan Kirby, Ivy Technical Community College, Indiana Christine Lemesianou, Montclair State University Maria Luskay, Pace University Jeff Przybylo, William Rainey Harper College Mike Shannon, Moraine Valley Community College Julie Williams, San Jacinto College
L earnSmart Contributors Mary Carver, University of Central Oklahoma Jennifer Cochrane, Indiana University–Purdue
University, Indianapolis Ava Good, San Jacinto College Amy King, Central Piedmont Community College Marjorie Keeshan Nadler, Miami University, Lead
Subject Matter Expert
C onnect and LearnSmart Reviewers Brent Adrian, Central Community College–Grand
Island campus Richard N. Armstrong, Wichita State University Frank Barnhart, Columbus State Community College Kimberly Berry, Ozarks Technical Community College Annette Bever, Vernon College Justin Braxton-Brown, Hopkinsville Community College Melissa Broeckelman-Post, California State University–
Los Angeles Drew Butler, Middle Tennessee State University Nick Carty, Dalton State Leslie Collins, Modesto Junior College Paige Davis, Lone Star College, CyFair Denise Elmer, Southeast Community College–Beatrice
Pam Glasnapp, University of Central Missouri JoAnna Grant, California State University,
San Bernardino Stacy B. Gresell, Lone Star College, CyFair Jill Hall, Jefferson Community and Technical College,
Downtown Daria Heinemann, Keiser University Richard Jones, Eastern Illinois University Patti Keeling, Chabot College Tressa Kelly, University of West Florida Darren Linvill, Clemson University Natonya Listach, Middle Tennessee State University Jodie Mandel, College of Southern Nevada–Henderson James McCoy, College of Southern Nevada–Henderson Peg McCree, Middle Tennessee State University Libby McGlone, Columbus State Community College Terri Metzger, California State University,
San Bernardino John Nash, Moraine Valley Community College Maria Parnell, Brevard Community College–Melbourne Jean Perry, Glendale Community College Tim Pierce, Northern Illinois University William Price, Georgia Perimeter College Greg Rickert, Bluegrass Community and Technical College Thomas Sabetta, University of Kentucky Jay Self, Truman State University Michael Shannon, Moraine Valley Community College Susan Silcott, Ohio University Lancaster Richard (Kim) Sisson, Georgia Perimeter College Katherine Taylor, University of Louisville Alice Veksler, University of Connecticut–Storrs Ann Marie Whyte, Penn State University–Harrisburg Julie Williams, San Jacinto College
Design Reviewers Barbara Baron, Brookdale Community College Elizabeth Jill Coker, Itawamba Community College–
Tupelo Ferald J. Bryan, Northern Illinois University Jack Byer, Bucks County Community College Terri Helmick, Johnson County Community College Steven King, Ivy Technical Community College, Indiana Elizabeth Rumschlag, Baker College, Auburn Hills David Simon, Northern Illinois University Katherine Taylor, University of Louisville Kristi Whitehill, Ivy Technical Community College,
Indiana
Public-Speaking Survey Participants Bob Alexander, Bossier Parish Community College Barbara Armentrout, Central Piedmont Community
College Richard N. Armstrong, Brevard Community College–
Titusville Barbara Baron, Brookdale Community College Kimberly Berry, Ozarks Technical Community College Laura Berry, Pearl River Community College Molly Brown, Clinton Community College Ferald J. Bryan, Northern Illinois University Jack Byer, Bucks County Community College Rebecca Carlton, Indiana University Southeast Mary Carver, University of Central Oklahoma Helen Chester, Milwaukee Area Technical College
xxiv PREFACE
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Cerbrina Chou, Chemeketa Community College Melissa Click, University of Missouri–Columbia Ron Compton, Triton College Audrey Deterding, Indiana University Southeast Kelly Driskell, Trinity Valley Community College James Duncan, Anderson University Karen Dwyer, University of Nebraska, Omaha Rick Falvo, College of Lake County Tori Forncrook, Georgia Perimeter College Rebecca J. Franco, Indiana University Southeast Meredith Frank, La Salle University Bonnie Gabel, McHenry County College Jodi Gaete, Suffolk County Community College Colleen Garside, Weber State University Paul Gaustad, Georgia Perimeter College Jeffrey Gentry, Rogers State University Pamela M. Glasnapp, University of Central Missouri Robert Glenn, III, Kentucky Community and Technical
College System–Owensboro Community and Technical College
Ava Good, San Jacinto College Thomas Green, Faulkner State Community College Neva Kay Gronert, Arapahoe Community College William F. Harlow, University of Texas–Permian Basin Kate Harris, Loyola University–Chicago ; Roosevelt
University Tina Harris, University of Georgia Terri Helmick, Johnson County Community College Marcia Hotchkiss, Tennessee State University Dr. David Johnson, University of Maryland Eastern Shore Brenda Jones, Franklin University Kate Kane, Northeastern Illinois University Amy King, Central Piedmont Community College Patricia King, McHenry County College Sandy King, Anne Arundel Community College Vijay Krishna, College of the Canyons Linda Kurz, University of Missouri–Kansas City Abby Lackey, Jackson State Community College Victoria Leonard, Cape Fear Community College Sujanet Mason, Luzerne County Community College Wolfgang Mcaninch-Runzi, University of Texas–
Permian Basin Alison McCrowell Lietzenmayer, Old Dominion
University
Nicki Michalski, Lamar University–Beaumont Diane Miller, Finlandia University; Michigan Techno-
logical University Holly Miller, University of Nebraska–Omaha Stanley Moore, Henry Ford Community College David Moss, Mt. San Jacinto College–Menifee Heidi Murphy, Central New Mexico Community College Ulysses Newkirk, Kentucky Community and Technical
College System–Owensboro Community and Technical College
Ronn Norfleet, Kentucky Community and Technical College System
Dr. Lisa M. Orick-Martinez, Central New Mexico Community College
Maria Parnell, Brevard Community College–Melbourne Jeff Przybylo, William Rainey Harper College Jason Andrew Ramsey, Indiana University Southeast Pamela J. Reid, Copiah-Lincoln Community College Cynthia Robinson-Moore, University of Nebraska–
Omaha Rhona Rye, California State Polytechnic University,
Pomona Thomas J. Sabetta, Cape Fear Community College Jay Self, Truman State University Alisa Shubb, University of California, Davis James Spurrier, Vincennes University Katherine Taylor, University of Louisville Lisa Turowski, Towson University Alice Veksler, University of Connecticut–Storrs Tom Vickers, Embry Riddle Aero University–Daytona
Beach Janice M. Vierk, Metropolitan Community College–
Omaha Myra H. Walters, Edison State College Stephanie Webster, University of Florida, Gainesville Linda J. White, Central Piedmont Community College Theresa White, Faulkner State Community College Cicely Wilson, Victory University (formerly Crichton
College) Alan Winson, John Jay College of Criminal Justice Josie Wood, Chemeketa Community College Tina Zagara, Georgia Perimeter College
PREFACE xxv
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The Art of Public Speaking
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3
Advantages of Visual Aids Kinds of Visual Aids
Guidelines for Preparing Visual Aids
Guidelines for Presenting Visual Aids
Speaking in Public
1
Visual Aids Aids
Preparing
Presenting
The Power of Public Speaking
The Tradition of Public Speaking
Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation
Differences Between Public Speaking and Conversation
Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class
Public Speaking and Critical Thinking
The Speech Communication Process
Public Speaking in a Multicultural World
G rowing up in a tough neighborhood in the
South Bronx, Geoffrey Canada had no inten-
tion of becoming a public speaker. A good
student, he went to college at Bowdoin and then to
graduate school at Harvard, where he earned a mas-
ter’s degree in education. After teaching in New
Hampshire and Boston, he returned to New York City,
where in 1990 he founded the Harlem Children’s Zone.
Called “one of the biggest social experiments of
our time” by the New York Times Magazine , the Harlem Children’s Zone seeks not just to educate children, but
to develop a community system that addresses issues
such as health care, violence, substance abuse, and job
training. Over the years, Canada has raised more than
$100 million for the project, and he has helped change
the lives of thousands of kids and families.
How has Canada achieved all this? Partly through
his education, his commitment to children, and his seem-
ingly limitless energy. But just as important is his ability
to communicate with people through public speaking,
which has been a primary vehicle for spreading his mes-
sage. He has been described as a “charismatic, passion-
ate, eloquent” speaker who leaves his audiences “awed.”
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4 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
If you had asked Geoffrey Canada early in his life, “Do you see yourself as a major public speaker?” he probably would have laughed at the idea. Yet today he gives more than 100 presentations a year. Along the way, he has spoken at the White House, has lectured at Harvard and Princeton, and has addressed the Aspen Institute and the Google International Zeitgeist. He has also appeared on 60 Minutes and is featured in the film Waiting for Superman .
The Power of Public Speaking
Throughout history people have used public speaking as a vital means of communication. What the Greek leader Pericles said more than 2,500 years ago is still true today: “One who forms a judgment on any point but cannot explain” it clearly “might as well never have thought at all on the subject.” 1 Public speaking, as its name implies, is a way of making your ideas public— of sharing them with other people and of influencing other people. During modern times, many women and men around the globe have spread their ideas and influence through public speaking. In the United States, the list includes Franklin Roosevelt, Billy Graham, Cesar Chavez, Barbara Jordan, Ronald Reagan, Martin Luther King, Hillary Clinton, and Barack Obama. In other countries, we see the power of public speaking employed by such peo- ple as former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, South African leader Nelson Mandela, Burmese democracy champion Aung San Suu Kyi, and Kenyan environmentalist and Nobel Prize winner Wangari Maathai. As you read these names, you may think to yourself, “That’s fine. Good for them. But what does that have to do with me? I don’t plan to be a presi- dent or a preacher or a crusader for any cause.” Nevertheless, the need for public speaking will almost certainly touch you sometime in your life—maybe tomorrow, maybe not for five years. Can you imagine yourself in any of these situations?
You are one of seven management trainees in a large corporation. One of you
will get the lower-management job that has just opened. There is to be a large
staff meeting at which each of the trainees will discuss the project he or she has
been developing. One by one your colleagues make their presentations. They have
no experience in public speaking and are intimidated by the higher-ranking
managers present. Their speeches are stumbling and awkward. You, however, call
upon all the skills you learned in your public speaking course. You deliver an
informative talk that is clear, well reasoned, and articulate. You get the job.
One of your children has a learning disability. You hear that your local school
board has decided, for budget reasons, to eliminate the special teacher who has
been helping your child. At an open meeting of the school board, you stand up
and deliver a thoughtful, compelling speech on the necessity for keeping the
special teacher. The school board changes its mind.
You are the assistant manager in a branch office of a national company. Your
immediate superior, the branch manager, is about to retire, and there will be a
retirement dinner. All the executives from the home office will attend. As his close
working associate, you are asked to give a farewell toast at the party. You prepare
and deliver a speech that is both witty and touching—a perfect tribute to your
View John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Ronald Reagan, Barbara Jordan, and other speakers in the online Media Library for this chapter (Video 1.1)
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The Tradition of Public Speaking 5
boss. After the speech, everyone applauds enthusiastically, and a few people have
tears in their eyes. The following week you are named branch manager.
Fantasies? Not really. Any of these situations could occur. In a recent survey of more than 300 business leaders, the ability to communicate effectively— including public speaking—was ranked first among the skills of college grad- uates sought by employers. In another survey, the American Management Association asked 2,000 managers and executives to rank the skills most essential in today’s workplace. What was at the top of their list? Communica- tion skills. 2 The importance of such skills is true across the board—for accountants and architects, teachers and technicians, scientists and stockbrokers. Even in highly specialized fields such as civil and mechanical engineering, employers consistently rank the ability to communicate above technical knowledge when deciding whom to hire and whom to promote. Businesses are also asking people to give more speeches in the early stages of their careers, and many young professionals are using public speaking as a way to stand out in today’s highly competitive job market. 3 In fact, the ability to speak effectively is so prized that college graduates are increasingly being asked to give a presentation as part of their job interview. Nor has the growth of the Internet and other new technologies reduced the need for public speaking. In this age of e-mail and Twitter, businesses are concerned that college graduates are losing the ability to talk in a professional way. As career expert Lindsey Pollak states, “It’s so rare to find somebody who has that combination of really good technical skills and really good verbal communication skills. You will be head and shoulders above your colleagues if you can combine those two.” 4 The same is true in community life. Public speaking is a vital means of civic engagement. It is a way to express your ideas and to have an impact on issues that matter in society. As a form of empowerment, it can—and often does—make a difference in things people care about very much. The key phrase here is “make a difference.” This is what most of us want to do in life—to make a difference, to change the world in some small way. Public speaking offers you an opportunity to make a difference in something you care about very much.
The Tradition of Public Speaking
Given the importance of public speaking, it’s not surprising that it has been taught and studied around the globe for thousands of years. Almost all cul- tures have an equivalent of the English word “orator” to designate someone with special skills in public speaking. The oldest known handbook on effec- tive speech was written on papyrus in Egypt some 4,500 years ago. Eloquence was highly prized in ancient India, Africa, and China, as well as among the Aztecs and other pre-European cultures of North and South America. 5 In classical Greece and Rome, public speaking played a central role in education and civic life. It was also studied extensively. Aristotle’s Rhetoric, composed during the third century B.C. , is still considered the most important work on its subject, and many of its principles are followed by speakers (and
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6 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
writers) today. The great Roman leader Cicero used his speeches to defend liberty and wrote several works about oratory in general. Over the centuries, many other notable thinkers have dealt with issues of rhetoric, speech, and language—including the Roman educator Quintil- ian, the Christian preacher St. Augustine, the medieval writer Christine de Pizan, the British philosopher Francis Bacon, and the American critic Kenneth Burke. In recent years, communication researchers have provided an increasingly scientific basis for understanding the methods and strategies of effective speech. Your immediate objective is to apply those methods and strategies in your classroom speeches. What you learn, however, will be applicable long after you leave college. The principles of public speaking are derived from a long tradition and have been confirmed by a substantial body of research. The more you know about those principles, the more effective you will be in your own speeches—and the more effective you will be in listening to the speeches of other people.
Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation
How much time do you spend each day talking to other people? The average adult spends about 30 percent of her or his waking hours in conversation. By the time you read this book, you will have spent much of your life perfecting the art of conversation. You may not realize it, but you already employ a wide range of skills when talking to people. These skills include the following:
1. Organizing your thoughts logically. Suppose you were giving someone directions to get to your house. You wouldn’t do it this way:
When you turn off the highway, you’ll see a big diner on the left. But before
that, stay on the highway to Exit 67. Usually a couple of the neighbors’ dogs
are in the street, so go slow after you turn at the blinking light. Coming from
your house you get on the highway through Maple Street. If you pass the taco
stand, you’ve gone too far. The house is blue.
Instead, you would take your listener systematically, step by step, from his or her house to your house. You would organize your message.
2. Tailoring your message to your audience. You are a geology major. Two people ask you how pearls are formed. One is your roommate; the other is your nine-year-old niece. You answer as follows:
To your roommate: “When any irritant, say a grain of sand, gets inside the oys-
ter’s shell, the oyster automatically secretes a substance called nacre, which is
principally calcium carbonate and is the same material that lines the oyster’s
shell. The nacre accumulates in layers around the irritant core to form the pearl.”
To your niece: “Imagine you’re an oyster on the ocean floor. A grain of sand
gets inside your shell and makes you uncomfortable. So you decide to cover it
up. You cover it with a material called mother-of-pearl. The covering builds up
around the grain of sand to make a pearl.”
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Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation 7
3. Telling a story for maximum impact. Suppose you are telling a friend about a funny incident at last week’s football game. You don’t begin with the punch line (“Keisha fell out of the stands right onto the field. Here’s how it started. . . .”). Instead, you carefully build up your story, adjusting your words and tone of voice to get the best effect.
4. Adapting to listener feedback. Whenever you talk with someone, you are aware of that person’s verbal, facial, and physical reactions. For example:
You are explaining an interesting point that came up in biology class. Your lis-
tener begins to look confused, puts up a hand as though to stop you, and says
“Huh?” You go back and explain more clearly.
A friend has asked you to listen while she practices a speech. At the end you tell
her, “There’s just one part I really don’t like—that quotation from the attorney gen-
eral.” Your friend looks very hurt and says, “That was my favorite part!” So you say,
“But if you just worked the quotation in a little differently, it would be wonderful.”
Each day, in casual conversation, you do all these things many times with- out thinking about them. You already possess these communication skills. And these are among the most important skills you will need for public speaking. To illustrate, let’s return briefly to one of the hypothetical situations at the beginning of this chapter. When addressing the school board about the need for a special teacher:
■ You organize your ideas to present them in the most persuasive manner. You steadily build up a compelling case about how the teacher benefits the school.
■ You tailor your message to your audience. This is no time to launch an impassioned defense of special education in the United States. You must show how the issue is important to the people in that very room—to their children and to the school.
Many skills used in conversation also
apply in public speaking. As you learn
to speak more effectively, you may
also learn to communicate more
effectively in other situations.
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8 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
■ You tell your story for maximum impact. Perhaps you relate an anecdote to demonstrate how much your child has improved. You also have statistics to show how many other children have been helped.
■ You adapt to listener feedback. When you mention the cost of the special teacher, you notice sour looks on the faces of the school board members. So you patiently explain how small that cost is in relation to the overall school budget.
In many ways, then, public speaking requires the same skills used in ordinary conversation. Most people who communicate well in daily talk can learn to communicate just as well in public speaking. By the same token, training in public speaking can make you a more adept communicator in a variety of situations, such as conversations, classroom discussions, business meetings, and interviews.
Differences Between Public Speaking and Conversation
Despite their similarities, public speaking and everyday conversation are not identical. Imagine that you are telling a story to a friend. Then imagine your- self telling the story to a group of seven or eight friends. Now imagine telling the same story to 20 or 30 people. As the size of your audience grows, you will find yourself adapting to three major differences between conversation and public speaking:
1. Public speaking is more highly structured. It usually imposes strict time limitations on the speaker. In most cases, the situation does not allow listen- ers to interrupt with questions or commentary. The speaker must accomplish her or his purpose in the speech itself. In preparing the speech, the speaker must anticipate questions that might arise in the minds of listeners and answer them. Consequently, public speaking demands much more detailed planning and preparation than ordinary conversation.
2. Public speaking requires more formal language. Slang, jargon, and bad grammar have little place in public speeches. As committed as he is to improv- ing the quality of education in urban schools, when Geoffrey Canada speaks to a legislative committee, he doesn’t say, “We’ve got to get every damn incompetent teacher out of the classroom!” Listeners usually react negatively to speakers who do not elevate and polish their language when addressing an audience. A speech should be “special.”
3. Public speaking requires a different method of delivery. When conversing informally, most people talk quietly, interject stock phrases such as “like” and “you know,” adopt a casual posture, and use what are called vocalized pauses (“uh,” “er,” “um”). Effective public speakers, however, adjust their voices to be heard clearly throughout the audience. They assume a more erect posture. They avoid distracting mannerisms and verbal habits.
With study and practice, you will be able to master these differences and expand your conversational skills into speechmaking. Your speech class will provide the opportunity for this study and practice.
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Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class 9
Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class
One of the major concerns of students in any speech class is stage fright. We may as well face the issue squarely. Many people who converse easily in all kinds of everyday situations become frightened at the idea of standing up before a group to make a speech. If you are worried about stage fright, you may feel better knowing that you are not alone. A 2001 Gallup Poll asked Americans to list their greatest fears. Forty percent identified speaking before a group as their top fear, exceeded only by the 51 percent who said they were afraid of snakes. A 2005 survey produced similar results, with 42 percent of respondents being terrified by the prospect of speaking in public. In comparison, only 28 percent said they were afraid of dying. 6 i n a different study, researchers concentrated on social situations and, again, asked their subjects to list their greatest fears. More than 9,000 people were interviewed. Here is the ranking of their answers: 7
Greatest Fear
Public speaking
Speaking up in a meeting or class
Meeting new people
Talking to people in authority
Important examination or interview
Going to parties
Talking with strangers
Again, speechmaking is at the top in provoking anxiety.
NERVOUSNESS IS NORMAL If you feel nervous about giving a speech, you are in very good company. Some of the greatest public speakers in history have suffered from stage fright, including Abraham Lincoln, Margaret Sanger, and Winston Churchill. The famous Roman orator Cicero said, “I turn pale at the outset of a speech and quake in every limb and in my soul.” 8 Oprah Winfrey, Conan O’Brien, and Jay Leno all report being anxious about speaking in public. Early in his career, Leonardo DiCaprio was so ner- vous about giving an acceptance speech that he hoped he would not win the Academy Award for which he had been nominated. Eighty-one percent of business executives say public speaking is the most nerve-wracking experience they face. 9 What comedian Jerry Seinfeld said in jest sometimes seems literally true: “Given a choice, at a funeral most of us would rather be the one in the coffin than the one giving the eulogy.” Actually, most people tend to be anxious before doing something impor- tant in public. Actors are nervous before a play, politicians are nervous before a campaign speech, athletes are nervous before a big game. The ones who succeed have learned to use their nervousness to their advantage. Listen to
stage fright
Anxiety over the prospect of giving a
speech in front of an audience.
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10 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
tennis star Rafael Nadal speaking after his 2010 Wimbledon title match against Tomas Berdych. “I was a little bit more nervous than usual,” he admitted. “But if you are not nervous in the finals of Wimbledon, you are not human!” Putting his butterflies to good use, Nadal beat Berdych in straight sets to claim his second Wimbledon championship. Much the same thing happens in speechmaking. Most experienced speak- ers have stage fright before taking the floor, but their nervousness is a healthy sign that they are getting “psyched up” for a good effort. Novelist and lecturer I. A. R. Wylie once said: “After many years of practice I am, I suppose, really a ‘practiced speaker.’ But I rarely rise to my feet without a throat constricted with terror and a furiously thumping heart. When, for some reason, I am cool and self-assured, the speech is always a failure.” In other words, it is perfectly normal—even desirable—to be nervous at the start of a speech. Your body is responding as it would to any stressful situation—by producing extra adrenaline. This sudden shot of adrenaline is what makes your heart race, your hands shake, your knees knock, and your skin perspire. Every public speaker experi- ences all these reactions to some extent. The question is: How can you con- trol your nervousness and make it work for you rather than against you?
DEALING WITH NERVOUSNESS Rather than trying to eliminate every trace of stage fright, you should aim at transforming it from a negative force into what one expert calls positive nervousness —“a zesty, enthusiastic, lively feeling with a slight edge to it. . . . It’s still nervousness, but it feels different. You’re no longer victimized by it; instead, you’re vitalized by it. You’re in control of it.” 10 Don’t think of yourself as having stage fright. Instead, think of it as “stage excitement” or “stage enthusiasm.” 11 It can help you get focused and ener- gized in the same way that it helps athletes, musicians, and others get primed for a game or a concert. Actress Jane Lynch, talking about her gig hosting Saturday Night Live , said that she got through it with “that perfect cocktail of nervousness and excitement.” Think of that cocktail as a normal part of giv- ing a successful speech. Here are six time-tested ways you can turn your nervousness from a neg- ative force into a positive one.
Acquire Speaking Experience You have already taken the first step. You are enrolled in a public speaking course, where you will learn about speechmaking and gain speaking experi- ence. Think back to your first day at kindergarten, your first date, your first day at a new job. You were probably nervous in each situation because you were facing something new and unknown. Once you became accustomed to the situation, it was no longer threatening. So it is with public speaking. For most students, the biggest part of stage fright is fear of the unknown. The more you learn about public speaking and the more speeches you give, the less threatening speechmaking will become. Of course, the road to confidence will sometimes be bumpy. Learning to give a speech is not much different from learning any other skill—it proceeds by trial and error. The purpose of your speech class is to shorten the process, to minimize the errors, to give you a nonthreatening arena—a sort of laboratory— in which to undertake the “trial.”
adrenaline
A hormone released into the
bloodstream in response to physical
or mental stress.
positive nervousness
Controlled nervousness that helps
energize a speaker for her or his
presentation.
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Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class 11
Your teacher recognizes that you are a novice and is trained to give the kind of guidance you need to get started. In your fellow students you have a highly sympathetic audience who will provide valuable feedback to help you improve your speaking skills. As the class goes on, your fears about pub- lic speaking will gradually recede until they are replaced by only a healthy nervousness before you rise to speak. 12
Prepare, Prepare, Prepare Another key to gaining confidence is to pick speech topics you truly care about—and then to prepare your speeches so thoroughly that you cannot help but be successful. Here’s how one student combined enthusiasm for his topic with thorough preparation to score a triumph in speech class:
Jesse Young was concerned about taking a speech class. Not having any
experience as a public speaker, he got butterflies in his stomach just thinking
about talking in front of an audience. But when the time came for Jesse’s first
speech, he was determined to make it a success.
Jesse chose Habitat for Humanity as the topic for his speech. He had been
a volunteer for three years, and he believed deeply in the organization and its
mission. The purpose of his speech was to explain the origins, philosophy, and
activities of Habitat for Humanity.
As Jesse spoke, it became clear that he was enthusiastic about his subject
and genuinely wanted his classmates to share his enthusiasm. Because he was
intent on communicating with his audience, he forgot to be nervous. He spoke
clearly, fluently, and dynamically. Soon the entire class was engrossed in his
speech.
Afterward, Jesse admitted that he had surprised even himself. “It was amaz-
ing,” he said. “Once I passed the first minute or so, all I thought about were
those people out there listening. I could tell that I was really getting through
to them.”
The need for public speaking arises
in many situations. Here Dr. John
Holcomb updates the media on the
condition of U.S. Representative
Gabrielle Giffords after she was shot
at a meeting in Tucson, Arizona.
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12 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
How much time should you devote to preparing your speeches? A stan- dard rule of thumb is that each minute of speaking time requires one to two hours of preparation time—perhaps more, depending on the amount of research needed for the speech. This may seem like a lot of time, but the rewards are well worth it. One professional speech consultant estimates that proper preparation can reduce stage fright by up to 75 percent. 13 If you follow the techniques suggested by your teacher and in the rest of this book, you will stand up for every speech fully prepared. Imagine that the day for your first speech has arrived. You have studied your audience and selected a topic you know will interest them. You have researched the speech thoroughly and practiced it several times until it feels absolutely comfortable. You have even tried it out before two or three trusted friends. How can you help but be confident of success?
Think Positively Confidence is mostly the well-known power of positive thinking. If you think you can do it, you usually can. On the other hand, if you predict disaster and doom, that is almost always what you will get. This is especially true when it comes to public speaking. Speakers who think negatively about themselves and the speech experience are much more likely to be overcome by stage fright than are speakers who think positively. Here are some ways you can transform negative thoughts into positive ones as you work on your speeches:
Negative Thought Positive Thought
I wish I didn’t have to give This speech is a chance for me to this speech. share my ideas and gain experience
as a speaker.
I’m not a great public speaker. No one’s perfect, but I’m getting better with each speech I give.
I’m always nervous when I give Everyone’s nervous. If other people a speech. can handle it, I can too.
No one will be interested in I have a good topic and I’m fully what I have to say. prepared. Of course they’ll be
interested.
Many psychologists believe that the ratio of positive to negative thoughts in regard to stressful activities such as speechmaking should be at least five to one. That is, for each negative thought, you should counter with a min- imum of five positive ones. Doing so will not make your nerves go away completely, but it will help keep them under control so you can concentrate on communicating your ideas rather than on brooding about your fears and anxieties.
Use the Power of Visualization Visualization is closely related to positive thinking. It is used by athletes, musicians, actors, speakers, and others to enhance their performance in stress- ful situations. How does it work? Listen to long-distance runner Vicki Huber:
Right before a big race, I’ll picture myself running, and I will try and put all
of the other competitors in the race into my mind. Then I will try and imagine
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Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class 13
every possible situation I might find myself in . . . behind someone, being boxed
in, pushed, shoved or cajoled, different positions on the track, laps to go, and, of
course, the final stretch. And I always picture myself winning the race, no matter
what happens during the event.
Of course, Huber doesn’t win every race she runs, but research has shown that the kind of mental imaging she describes can significantly increase ath- letic performance. 14 It has also shown that visualization can help speakers control their stage fright. 15 The key to visualization is creating a vivid mental blueprint in which you see yourself succeeding in your speech. Picture yourself in your classroom rising to speak. See yourself at the lectern, poised and self-assured, making eye contact with your audience and delivering your introduction in a firm, clear voice. Feel your confidence growing as your listeners get more and more caught up in what you are saying. Imagine your sense of achievement as you conclude the speech knowing you have done your very best. As you create these images in your mind’s eye, be realistic but stay focused on the positive aspects of your speech. Don’t allow negative images to eclipse the positive ones. Acknowledge your nervousness, but picture yourself over- coming it to give a vibrant, articulate presentation. If one part of the speech always seems to give you trouble, visualize yourself getting through it without any hitches. And be specific. The more lucid your mental pictures, the more successful you are likely to be. As with your physical rehearsal of the speech, this kind of mental rehearsal should be repeated several times in the days before you speak. It doesn’t guar- antee that every speech will turn out exactly the way you envision it—and it certainly is no substitute for thorough preparation. But used in conjunction with the other methods of combating stage fright, it is a proven way to help control your nerves and to craft a successful presentation.
Know That Most Nervousness Is Not Visible Many novice speakers are worried about appearing nervous to the audience. It’s hard to speak with poise and assurance if you think you look tense and insecure. One of the most valuable lessons you will learn as your speech class proceeds is that only a fraction of the turmoil you feel inside is visible on the outside. “Your nervous system may be giving you a thousand shocks,” says one experienced speaker, “but the viewer can see only a few of them.” 16
Even though your palms are sweating and your heart is pounding, your listeners probably won’t realize how tense you are—especially if you do your best to act cool and confident on the outside. Most of the time when students confess after a speech, “I was so nervous I thought I was going to die,” their classmates are surprised. To them the speaker looked calm and assured. Knowing this should make it easier for you to face your listeners with confidence. As one student stated after watching a videotape of her first class- room speech, “I was amazed at how calm I looked. I assumed everyone would be able to see how scared I was, but now that I know they can’t, I won’t be nearly so nervous in the future. It really helps to know that you look in control even though you may not feel that way.”
Don’t Expect Perfection It may also help to know that there is no such thing as a perfect speech. At some point in every presentation, every speaker says or does something that
visualization
Mental imaging in which a speaker
vividly pictures himself or herself
giving a successful presentation.
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14 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
does not come across exactly as he or she had planned. Fortunately, such moments are usually not evident to the audience. Why? Because the audience does not know what the speaker plans to say. It hears only what the speaker does say. If you momentarily lose your place, reverse the order of a couple statements, or forget to pause at a certain spot, no one need be the wiser. When such moments occur, just proceed as if nothing happened. Even if you do make an obvious mistake during a speech, that is no catastrophe. If you have ever listened to Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream,” you may recall that he stumbles twice during the speech. Most likely, however, you don’t remember. Why? Because you were focusing on King’s message, rather than on the fine points of his delivery. One of the biggest reasons people are concerned about making a mistake in a speech is that they view speechmaking as a performance rather than an act of communication. They feel the audience is judging them against a scale of absolute perfection in which every misstated word or awkward gesture will count against them. But speech audiences are not like judges in a violin recital or an ice-skating contest. They are not looking for a virtuoso performance, but for a well-thought-out address that communicates the speaker’s ideas clearly and directly. Sometimes an error or two can actually enhance a speak- er’s appeal by making her or him seem more human. 17 As you work on your speeches, make sure you prepare thoroughly and do all you can to get your message across to your listeners. But don’t panic about being perfect or about what will happen if you make a mistake. Once you free your mind of these burdens, you will find it much easier to approach your speeches with confidence and even with enthusiasm.
Besides stressing the six points just discussed, your teacher will probably give you several tips for dealing with nervousness in your first speeches. They may include:
Like many well-known public figures,
Conan O’Brien often experiences stage
fright before a speech. Most speakers
report that their nervousness drops
significantly after the first 30 to
60 seconds of a presentation.
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Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class 15
■ Be at your best physically and mentally. It’s not a good idea to stay up until 3:00 A.M . partying with friends or cramming for an exam the night before your speech. A good night’s sleep will serve you better.
■ As you are waiting to speak, quietly tighten and relax your leg muscles, or squeeze your hands together and then release them. Such actions help reduce tension by providing an outlet for your extra adrenaline.
■ Take a couple slow, deep breaths before you start to speak. When they are tense, most people take short, shallow breaths, which only reinforces their anxiety. Deep breathing breaks this cycle of tension and helps calm your nerves.
■ Work especially hard on your introduction. Research has shown that a speak- er’s anxiety level begins to drop significantly after the first 30 to 60 seconds of a presentation. 18 Once you get through the introduction, you should find smoother sailing the rest of the way.
■ Make eye contact with members of your audience. Remember that they are individual people, not a blur of faces. And they are your friends.
■ Concentrate on communicating with your audience rather than on worry- ing about your stage fright. If you get caught up in your speech, your audience will too.
■ Use visual aids. They create interest, draw attention away from you, and make you feel less self-conscious.
checklist Speaking with Confidence
YES NO
1. Am I enthusiastic about my speech topic?
2. Have I thoroughly developed the content of my speech?
3. Have I worked on the introduction so my speech will get off to a good start?
4. Have I worked on the conclusion so my speech will end on a strong note?
5. Have I rehearsed my speech orally until I am confident about its delivery?
6. Have I worked on turning negative thoughts about my speech into positive ones?
7. Do I realize that nervousness is normal, even among experienced speakers?
8. Do I understand that most nervousness is not visible to the audience?
9. Am I focused on communicating with my audience, rather than on worrying about my nerves?
10. Have I visualized myself speaking confidently and getting a positive response from the audience?
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16 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
If you are like most students, you will find your speech class to be a very positive experience. As one student wrote on her course evaluation at the end of the class:
I was really dreading this class. The idea of giving all those speeches scared
me half to death. But I’m glad now that I stuck with it. It’s a small class, and I
got to know a lot of the students. Besides, this is one class in which I got to
express my ideas, instead of spending the whole time listening to the teacher talk.
I even came to enjoy giving the speeches. I could tell at times that the audience
was really with me, and that’s a great feeling.
Over the years, thousands of students have developed confidence in their speechmaking abilities. As your confidence grows, you will be better able to stand before other people and tell them what you think and feel and know— and to make them think and feel and know those same things. The best part about confidence is that it nurtures itself. After you score your first triumph, you will be that much more confident the next time. And as you become a more confident public speaker, you will likely become more confident in other areas of your life as well.
Public Speaking and Critical Thinking
That guy at the party last night really owned me when we were talking about
the economy. I know my information is right, and I’m sure his argument didn’t
make sense, but I can’t put my finger on the problem.
I worked really hard on my term paper, but it’s just not right. It doesn’t seem
to hang together, and I can’t figure out what’s wrong.
Political speeches are so one-sided. The candidates sound good, but they all
talk in slogans and generalities. It’s really hard to decide who has the best
stands on the issues.
Have you ever found yourself in similar situations? If so, you may find help in your speech class. Besides building confidence, a course in public speaking can develop your skills as a critical thinker. Those skills can make the difference between the articulate debater and the pushover, the A student and the C student, the thoughtful voter and the coin tosser. What is critical thinking? To some extent, it’s a matter of logic—of being able to spot weaknesses in other people’s arguments and to avoid them in your own. It also involves related skills such as distinguishing fact from opin- ion, judging the credibility of statements, and assessing the soundness of evi- dence. In the broadest sense, critical thinking is focused, organized thinking—the ability to see clearly the relationships among ideas. 19 If you are wondering what this has to do with your public speaking class, the answer is quite a lot. As the class proceeds, you will probably spend a good deal of time organizing your speeches. While this may seem like a purely mechanical exercise, it is closely interwoven with critical thinking. If the structure of your speech is disjointed and confused, odds are that your think- ing is also disjointed and confused. If, on the other hand, the structure is
critical thinking
Focused, organized thinking about
such things as the logical
relationships among ideas, the
soundness of evidence, and the
differences between fact and opinion.
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Public Speaking and Critical Thinking 17
clear and cohesive, there is a good chance your thinking is too. Organizing a speech is not just a matter of arranging the ideas you already have. Rather, it is an important part of shaping the ideas themselves. What is true of organization is true of many aspects of public speaking. The skills you learn in your speech class can help you become a more effective thinker in a number of ways. As you work on expressing your ideas in clear, accurate language, you will enhance your ability to think clearly and accurately. As you study the role of evidence and reasoning in speechmaking, you will see how they can be used in other forms of com- munication as well. As you learn to listen critically to speeches in class, you will be better able to assess the ideas of speakers (and writers) in a variety of situations. To return to the examples at the beginning of this section:
The guy at the party last night—would well-honed critical thinking skills help
you find the holes in his argument?
The term paper—would better organization and a clear outline help pull it
together?
Political speeches—once you get past the slogans, are the candidates drawing
valid conclusions from sound evidence?
If you take full advantage of your speech class, you will be able to enhance your skills as a critical thinker in many circumstances. This is one reason public speaking has been regarded as a vital part of education since the days of ancient Greece.
It’s been three years since you graduated from col-
lege. After gaining experience as an administrative
assistant at a major office equipment manufacturer,
you’ve just been promoted to marketing manager
for office copiers. Though you have oc-
casionally given brief reports to other
members of your work team, you’re
now facing your first speech to a
large audience. At your company’s
annual sales meeting, you will
address the sales force about
the company’s new multifunc-
tion printer/copiers, and how
to sell them to dealers such as
Office Depot and OfficeMax.
You’re pleased to have this opportunity and you
know it shows the company’s faith in your abilities.
Yet the closer you get to the day of the speech, the
harder it is to control the butterflies in your stomach.
There will be 200 people in your audience, including
all the sales managers and regional managers, in
addition to the sales force.
All eyes will be on you. It’s
important that you come
across as confident and well in-
formed, but you’re afraid your
stage fright will send the opposite
message. What strategies will
you use to control your nerves
and make them work for you?
Using public speaking in your CAREER
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18 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
The Speech Communication Process
As you begin your first speeches, you may find it helpful to understand what goes on when one person talks to another. Regardless of the kind of speech communication involved, there are seven elements—speaker, message, chan- nel, listener, feedback, interference, and situation. Here we focus on how these elements interact when a public speaker addresses an audience.
SPEAKER
Speech communication begins with a speaker. If you pick up the telephone and call a friend, you are acting as a speaker. (Of course, you will also act as a listener when your friend is talking.) In public speaking, you will usually present your entire speech without interruption. Your success as a speaker depends on you —on your personal credibility, your knowledge of the subject, your preparation of the speech, your manner of speaking, your sensitivity to the audience and the occasion. But successful speaking also requires enthusiasm. You can’t expect people to be interested in what you say unless you are interested yourself. If you are truly excited about your subject, your audi- ence is almost sure to get excited along with you. You can learn all the techniques of effective speechmaking, but before they can be of much use, you must first have something to say—something that sparks your own enthusiasm.
MESSAGE
The message is whatever a speaker communicates to someone else. If you are calling a friend, you might say, “I’ll be a little late picking you up tonight.” That is the message. But it may not be the only message. Perhaps there is a certain tone in your voice that suggests reluctance, hesitation. The underlying message might be “I really don’t want to go to that party. You talked me into it, but I’m going to put it off as long as I can.” Your goal in public speaking is to have your intended message be the mes- sage that is actually communicated. Achieving this depends both on what you say (the verbal message) and on how you say it (the nonverbal message). Getting the verbal message just right requires work. You must narrow your topic down to something you can discuss adequately in the time allowed for the speech. You must do research and choose supporting details to make your ideas clear and convincing. You must organize your ideas so listeners can follow them without getting lost. And you must express your message in words that are accurate, clear, vivid, and appropriate. Besides the message you send with words, you send a message with your tone of voice, appearance, gestures, facial expression, and eye contact. Imag- ine that one of your classmates gets up to speak about student loans. Throughout her speech she slumps behind the lectern, takes long pauses to remember what she wants to say, stares at the ceiling, and fumbles with her visual aids. Her intended message is “We must make more money available for stu- dent loans.” But the message she actually communicates is “I haven’t pre- pared very well for this speech.” One of your jobs as a speaker is to make sure your nonverbal message does not distract from your verbal message.
speaker
The person who is presenting an oral
message to a listener.
message
Whatever a speaker communicates to
someone else.
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The Speech Communication Process 19
CHANNEL The channel is the means by which a message is communicated. When you pick up the phone to call a friend, the telephone is the channel. Public speak- ers may use one or more of several channels, each of which will affect the message received by the audience. Consider a speech to Congress by the President of the United States. The speech is carried to the nation by the channels of radio and television. For the radio audience the message is conveyed entirely by the President’s voice. For the television audience the message is conveyed by both the President’s voice and the televised image. The people in Congress have a more direct channel. They not only hear the President’s voice as amplified through a microphone, but they also see him and the setting firsthand. In a public speaking class, your channel is the most direct of all. Your classmates will see you and hear you without any electronic intervention.
LISTENER
The listener is the person who receives the communicated message. With- out a listener, there is no communication. When you talk to a friend on the phone, you have one listener. In public speaking you will have many listeners. Everything a speaker says is filtered through a listener’s frame of reference — the total of his or her knowledge, experience, goals, values, and attitudes. Because a speaker and a listener are different people, they can never have exactly the same frame of reference. And because a listener’s frame of reference can never be exactly the same as a speaker’s, the meaning of a message will never be exactly the same to a listener as to a speaker. You can easily test the impact of different frames of reference. Ask each of your classmates to describe a chair. If you have 20 classmates, you’ll probably get 20 different descriptions. One student might picture a large, overstuffed
channel
The means by which a message is
communicated.
listener
The person who receives the
speaker’s message.
frame of reference
The sum of a person’s knowledge,
experience, goals, values, and
attitudes. No two people can have
exactly the same frame of reference.
The powers of critical thinking you
develop in researching and organizing
your speeches can be applied in many
forms of communication, including
meetings and group projects.
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20 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
easy chair, another an elegant straight-backed chair, yet another an office chair, a fourth a rocking chair, and so on. Even if two or more envision the same general type—say, a rocking chair—their mental images of the chair could still be different. One might be thinking of an early American rocker, another of a modern Scandinavian rocker—the possibilities are unlimited. And “chair” is a fairly simple concept. What about “patriotism” or “freedom”? Because people have different frames of reference, a public speaker must take great care to adapt the message to the particular audience being addressed. To be an effective speaker, you must be audience-centered. You will quickly lose your listeners’ attention if your presentation is either too basic or too sophis- ticated. You will also lose your audience if you do not relate to their experience, interests, knowledge, and values. When you make a speech that causes listeners to say “That is important to me, ” you will almost always be successful.
FEEDBACK
When the President addresses the nation on television, he is engaged in one- way communication. You can talk back to the television set, but the President won’t hear you. Most situations, however, involve two-way communication. Your listeners don’t simply absorb your message like human sponges. They send back messages of their own. These messages are called feedback. In public speaking there is plenty of feedback to let you know how your message is being received. Do your listeners lean forward in their seats, as if paying close attention? Do they have quizzical looks on their faces? Do they shuffle their feet and gaze at the clock? The message sent by these reactions could be “I am fascinated,” “I am bored,” “I agree with you,” “I don’t agree with you,” or any number of others. As a speaker, you need to be alert to these reac- tions and adjust your message accordingly. Like any kind of communication, feedback is affected by one’s frame of reference. How would you feel if, immediately after your speech, all your class- mates started to rap their knuckles on the desks? Would you run out of the room in despair? Not if you were in a European university. In many parts of Europe, students rap their knuckles on their desks to show admiration for a classroom lecture. You must understand the feedback to be able to deal with it.
INTERFERENCE
Interference is anything that impedes the communication of a message. When you talk on the telephone, sometimes there is static, or wires get crossed so that two different conversations are going on at once. That is a kind of interference. In public speaking there are two kinds of interference. One, like the static or crossed wires in a phone conversation, is external to the audience. Many classrooms are subject to this kind of interference—from traffic outside the building, the clatter of a radiator, students conversing in the hall, a room that is stifling hot or freezing cold. Any of these can distract listeners from what you are saying. A second kind of interference is internal and comes from within your audience. Perhaps one of your listeners has a toothache. She may be so dis- tracted by the pain that she doesn’t pay attention to your speech. Another listener could be worrying about a test in the next class period. Yet another could be brooding about an argument with his girlfriend.
feedback
The messages, usually nonverbal,
sent from a listener to a speaker.
interference
Anything that impedes the
communication of a message.
Interference can be external or
internal to listeners.
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The Speech Communication Process 21
As a speaker, you must try to hold your listeners’ attention despite these various kinds of interference. In the chapters that follow you will find many ways to do this.
SITUATION
The situation is the time and place in which speech communication occurs. Conversation always takes place in a certain situation. Sometimes the situa- tion helps—as when you propose marriage over an intimate candlelight din- ner. Other times it may hurt—as when you try to speak words of love in competition with a blaring stereo. When you have to talk with someone about a touchy issue, you usually wait until the situation is just right. Public speakers must also be alert to the situation. Certain occasions— funerals, church services, graduation ceremonies—require certain kinds of speeches. Physical setting is also important. It makes a great deal of difference whether a speech is presented indoors or out, in a small classroom or in a gymnasium, to a densely packed crowd or to a handful of scattered souls. When you adjust to the situation of a public speech, you are only doing on a larger scale what you do every day in conversation. (For a complete model of the speech communication process, see Fig- ure 1.1 above.20)
THE SPEECH COMMUNICATION PROCESS: EXAMPLE WITH COMMENTARY The following example shows how the various components of the speech communication process interact:
Situation It was 5:15 P.M., and the fall sales conference of OmniBrands, Inc.,
had been going on all day. A series of new-product presentations
to buyers from the company’s largest customers had taken much
longer than expected.
Speaker Alyson Kaufman was worried. As a marketing manager for fragrances,
she was the last speaker of the day. When Alyson rose to address
situation
The time and place in which speech
communication occurs.
Situation
CHAN NEL
Situation
Interference
Si tu
at io
n
FEEDBA CK
MESSAG E
Situation
FIGURE 1.1
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22 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
the audience, she knew she faced a difficult situation. She had been
allotted 45 minutes to introduce her products, and the meeting was
scheduled to end in 15 minutes. What’s more, holiday sales of her
entire product line depended in large part on this presentation.
Channel Alyson stepped to the microphone and began to speak. She could
see members of the audience looking at their watches, and she knew
Interference they were eager to get to dinner after a long day of presentations.
Adapting to “Good afternoon,” Alyson said, “thanks for your attention. I know
Interference everyone is ready for dinner—I certainly am. I was given 45 minutes
for my presentation—okay, everybody groan—but with your kind
cooperation, I’ll do my best to finish in under half an hour. I think
you’ll find the time well worth your while, because the products I
am going to tell you about will seriously boost your holiday sales.”
Alyson was relieved to see several people smiling as they settled
back in their seats.
Message Now that she had the audience’s attention, Alyson presented each
new product as briefly as she could. She streamlined her planned
presentation to emphasize the features that would be most appeal-
ing to the buyers and the ones they would be most likely to remem-
ber. She ended by handing out samples of the products and
promising to contact anyone who needed more information. She
quickly added her e-mail address to her PowerPoint slides and was
encouraged to see people writing it down.
Feedback As promised, Alyson finished in under half an hour. “And that wraps
it up!” she concluded. “Let’s eat!” Later, the marketing director com-
plimented Alyson on dealing so well with a tough situation. “You
did a great job,” the marketing director said. “Next year, we’ll try to
make all the presentations as concise and efficient as yours.”
Public Speaking in a Multicultural World
CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN THE MODERN WORLD The United States has always been a diverse society. By the middle of the 19th century, it contained so many people from so many lands that novelist Herman Melville exclaimed, “You cannot spill a drop of American blood with- out spilling the blood of the whole world.” 21 One can only imagine what Melville would say today! The United States is the most diverse society on earth. That diversity can be seen in cities and towns, schools and businesses, community groups, and houses of worship all across the land. Consider the following:
■ There are 195 nations in the world, and every one of them has someone living in the United States.
■ Nearly 50 percent of the people in Miami were born outside the United States.
■ More than 55 million people in the United States speak a language other than English at home.
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Public Speaking in a Multicultural World 23
These kinds of developments are not limited to the United States. We live in an age of international multiculturalism. The Internet allows for instant communication around the world. CNN is broadcast to more than 1 billion people globally. Social media connect people across ancient boundaries. Despite political, social, and religious differences, all nations are becoming part of a vast global network. For example:
■ There are 82,000 transnational corporations around the world, and they account for one-third of the world’s economic output.
■ McDonald’s sells twice as many hamburgers and French fries abroad than it does in the United States; Nike makes 63 percent of its sales through exports.
■ France has as many Muslims as practicing Catholics; radio CHIN in Toronto, Canada, broadcasts in 31 languages.
CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND PUBLIC SPEAKING Speechmaking becomes more complex as cultural diversity increases. Part of the complexity stems from the differences in language from culture to culture. Nothing separates one culture from another more than language. Language and culture are so closely bound that “we communicate the way we do because we are raised in a particular culture and learn its language, rules, and norms.” 22 The meanings attached to gestures, facial expressions, and other nonver- bal signals also vary from culture to culture. Even the gestures for such basic messages as “hello” and “goodbye” are culturally based. The North American “goodbye” wave is interpreted in many parts of Europe and South America as the motion for “no,” while the Italian and Greek gesture for “goodbye” is the same as the U.S. signal for “come here.” 23
Public speaking is a vital mode of
communication in most cultures
around the world. Here journalist
Roxana Saberi, who was imprisoned
in Iran for more than 100 days, speaks
at a forum on media freedom held in
Doha, Qatar.
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24 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
Many stories have been told about the fate of public speakers who fail to take into account cultural differences between themselves and their audi- ences. Consider the following scenario: 24
The sales manager of a U.S. electronics firm is in Brazil to negotiate a large
purchase of computers by a South American corporation. After three days of
negotiations, the sales manager holds a gala reception for all the major executives
to build goodwill between the companies.
As is the custom on such occasions, time is set aside during the reception
for an exchange of toasts. When it is the sales manager’s turn to speak, he praises
the Brazilian firm for its many achievements and talks eloquently of his respect
for its president and other executives. The words are perfect, and the sales man-
ager can see his audience smiling in approval.
And then—disaster. As the sales manager closes his speech, he raises his hand
and flashes the classic U.S. “OK” sign to signal his pleasure at the progress of the
negotiations. Instantly the festive mood is replaced with stony silence; smiles turn
to icy stares. The sales manager has given his Brazilian audience a gesture with
roughly the same meaning as an extended middle finger in the United States.
The next day, the Brazilian firm announces that it will buy its computers from
another company.
As this story illustrates, public speakers can ill afford to overlook their listeners’ cultural values and customs. The methods of effective speech explained throughout this book will be helpful to you when addressing cul- turally diverse audiences. Here we need to stress the importance of avoiding the ethnocentrism that often blocks communication between speakers and listeners of different cultural backgrounds.
AVOIDING ETHNOCENTRISM
Ethnocentrism is the belief that our own group or culture—whatever it may be—is superior to all other groups or cultures. Because of ethnocentrism, we identify with our group or culture and see its values, beliefs, and customs as “right” or “natural”—in comparison to the values, beliefs, and customs of other groups or cultures, which we tend to think of as “wrong” or “unnatural.” 25 Ethnocentrism is part of every culture, and it can play a positive role in creating group pride and loyalty. But it can also lead to prejudice and hostil- ity toward different racial, ethnic, religious, or cultural groups. To be an effec- tive public speaker in a multicultural world, you need to keep in mind that all people have their special beliefs and customs. Avoiding ethnocentrism does not mean that you must agree with the values and practices of all groups and cultures. At times you might try to convince people of different cultures to change their traditional ways of doing things—as speakers from the United Nations seek to persuade farm- ers in Africa to adopt more productive methods of agriculture, or as dele- gates from the United States and China attempt to influence the other country’s trade policies. If such speakers are to be successful, however, they must show respect for the cultures of the people they address. They need to adapt their messages to the values and expectations of their listeners. When you work on your speeches, be alert to how cultural factors might affect how listeners respond. As we shall see in Chapter 6, for classroom
ethnocentrism
The belief that one’s own group or
culture is superior to all other groups
or cultures.
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Summary 25
speeches you can use audience-analysis questionnaires to learn about the backgrounds and opinions of your classmates. For speeches outside the class- room, the person who invites you to speak can usually provide information about the audience. Once you know about any cultural factors that might affect your listeners’ response, try to put yourself in their place and to hear your message through their ears. If there is a language difference, avoid words or phrases that might cause misunderstanding. When researching the speech, keep an eye out for visual aids and other materials that will relate to a wide range of listeners. When delivering the speech, be alert to feedback that might indicate the audience is having trouble grasping your ideas. It is also important to avoid ethnocentrism when listening to speeches. When you listen to a speaker from a different cultural background, be on guard against the temptation to judge the speaker on the basis of his or her appearance or manner of delivery. No matter what the cultural background of the speaker, you should listen to her or him as attentively as you would want your audience to listen to you. 26
Public speaking has been a vital means of personal empowerment and civic engage- ment throughout history. The need for effective public speaking will almost cer- tainly touch you sometime in your life. Your speech class will give you train- ing in researching topics, organizing your ideas, and presenting yourself skillfully. This training is invaluable for every type of communication.
There are many similarities between public speaking and daily con- versation, but public speaking is also different from conversation. First, it usually imposes strict time limitations and requires more detailed preparation than does ordinary conversation. Second, it requires more formal language. Listeners react negatively to speeches loaded with slang, jargon, and bad grammar. Third, public speaking demands a different method of delivery. Effective speakers adjust their voices to the larger audience and work at avoiding distracting physical manner- isms and verbal habits.
One of the major concerns of students in any speech class is stage fright. Your class will give you an opportunity to gain confidence and make your nervousness work for you rather than against you. You will take a big step toward overcoming stage fright if you think positively, prepare thoroughly, visual- ize yourself giving a successful speech, keep in mind that most nervousness is not visible to the audience, and think of your speech as communication rather than as a performance in which you must do everything perfectly.
A course in public speaking can also help develop your skills as a critical thinker. Critical thinking helps you organize your ideas, spot weaknesses in other people’s reasoning, and avoid them in your own.
The speech communication process includes seven elements—speaker, mes- sage, channel, listener, feedback, interference, and situation. The speaker is the person who initiates a speech transaction. Whatever the speaker communicates is the message, which is sent by means of a particular channel. The listener receives the communicated message and provides feedback to the speaker. Interference is anything that impedes the communication of a message, and the situation is the
Summary
ain- lf
ge make
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26 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public
time and place in which speech communication occurs. The interaction of these seven elements determines the outcome in any instance of speech communication.
Because of the diversity of modern life, many—perhaps most—of the audi- ences you address will include people of different cultural backgrounds. When you work on your speeches, be alert to how such factors might affect the responses of your listeners and adapt your message accordingly. Above all, avoid the ethnocen- tric belief that your own culture or group is superior to all others. Also keep in mind the importance of avoiding ethnocentrism when listening to speeches. Accord every speaker the same courtesy and attentiveness you would want from your listeners.
stage fright (9)
adrenaline (10)
positive nervousness (10)
visualization (13)
critical thinking (16)
speaker (18)
message (18)
channel (19)
listener (19)
frame of reference (19)
feedback (20)
interference (20)
situation (21)
ethnocentrism (24)
Key Terms
After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions:
1. In what ways is public speaking likely to make a difference in your life?
2. How is public speaking similar to everyday conversation?
3. How is public speaking different from everyday conversation?
4. Why is it normal—even desirable—to be nervous at the start of a speech?
5. How can you control your nervousness and make it work for you in your speeches?
6. What are the seven elements of the speech communication process? How do they interact to determine the success or failure of a speech?
7. What is ethnocentrism? Why do public speakers need to avoid ethnocentrism when addressing audiences with diverse cultural, racial, or ethnic backgrounds?
For further review, go to the LearnSmart study module for this chapter.
Review Questions
1. Think back on an important conversation you had recently in which you wanted to achieve a particular result. ( Examples: asking your employer to change your work schedule; explaining to a friend how to change the oil and filter in a car; attempting to talk your spouse or partner into buying the computer you like rather than the one he or she prefers.) Work up a brief analysis of the conversation.
Exercises for Critical Thinking
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Exercises for Critical Thinking 27
In your analysis, explain the following: (1) your purpose in the conversation and the message strategy you chose to achieve your purpose; (2) the communi- cation channels used during the conversation and how they affected the out- come; (3) the interference—internal or external—you encountered during the conversation; (4) the steps you took to adjust to feedback; (5) the strategic changes you would make in preparing for and carrying out the conversation if you had it to do over again.
2. Divide a sheet of paper into two columns. Label one column “Characteristics of an Effective Public Speaker.” Label the other column “Characteristics of an Ineffective Public Speaker.” In the columns, list and briefly explain what you believe to be the five most important characteristics of effective and ineffective speakers. Be prepared to discuss your ideas in class.
3. On the basis of the lists you developed for Exercise 2, candidly evaluate your own strengths and weaknesses as a speaker. Identify the three primary aspects of speechmaking you most want to improve.
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29
W hen the rumors started, Brian Pertzborn,
chief financial officer for a prominent
charity in the southwest United States,
called a press conference. Dozens of reporters
showed up. Brian looked directly into the cameras
and said, “I assure you that no one at this charity
has taken money away from the children and fami-
lies we work so hard to serve. Embezzlement is ille-
gal and a serious breach of trust. I would never let
either happen.”
Brian’s presentation was highly convincing, and for a time it quieted
the rumors. Unfortunately, his statements were false. Two months later,
he was indicted by the federal government for stealing more than
$2.5 million from the charity.
At the trial, it became clear that Brian was guilty as charged. It also
came out that on the very day of his press conference, he had tried to
cover his tracks by transferring some of the embezzled money to an
overseas bank account.
When the judge sentenced Brian to a stiff prison sentence, she made
it clear that she was influenced partly by Brian’s lies at the press confer-
ence. Had he told the truth, his pleas for leniency might have been better
received.
The Importance of Ethics
Guidelines for Ethical Speaking
Plagiarism
Guidelines for Ethical Listening
2
Ethics and Public Speaking
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30 CHAPTER 2 Ethics and Public Speaking
This is not a happy story, but it shows why public speaking needs to be guided by a strong sense of integrity. Brian Pertzborn was persuasive when speaking to the press, but he was unethical in lying to cover his illegal activities. As a result, he hurt people who relied on the charity, destroyed his reputation, and ended up with a long jail sentence. Perhaps if he had confessed before the cameras that day, he would have received a fine and a reprimand instead of the harshest sentence the judge could impose. The goal of public speaking is to gain a desired response from listeners— but not at any cost. Speechmaking is a form of power and therefore carries with it heavy ethical responsibilities. As the Roman rhetorician Quintilian stated 2,000 years ago, the ideal of speechmaking is the good person speaking well. In this chapter, we explore that ideal by looking at the importance of ethics in public speaking, the ethical obligations of speakers and listeners, and the practical problem of plagiarism and how to avoid it.
The Importance of Ethics
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with issues of right and wrong in human affairs. Questions of ethics arise whenever we ask whether a course of action is moral or immoral, fair or unfair, just or unjust, honest or dishonest. We face such questions daily in almost every part of our lives. The parent must decide how to deal with a child who has been sent home from school for unruly behavior. The researcher must decide whether to shade her data “just a bit” in order to gain credit for an important scientific breakthrough. The shopper must decide what to do with the $5 extra change mistakenly given by the clerk at the grocery store. The student must decide whether to say anything about a friend he has seen cheating on a final exam. Questions of ethics also come into play whenever a public speaker faces an audience. In an ideal world, as the Greek philosopher Plato noted, all public speakers would be truthful and devoted to the good of society. Yet history tells us that the power of speech is often abused—sometimes with disastrous results. Adolf Hitler was unquestionably a persuasive speaker. His oratory galvanized the German people, but his aims were horrifying and his tactics despicable. He remains to this day the ultimate example of why the power of the spoken word needs to be guided by a strong sense of ethical integrity. As a public speaker, you will face ethical issues at every stage of the speechmaking process—from the initial decision to speak through the final presentation of the message. And the answers will not always be easy. Con- sider the following example:
Felicia Robinson is running for school board in a large eastern city. Her oppo-
nent is conducting what Felicia regards as a highly unethical campaign. In addition
to twisting the facts about school taxes, the opponent is pandering to racial
prejudice by raising resentment against African Americans and recently arrived
immigrants.
Five days before the election, Felicia, who is slightly behind in the polls, learns
that the district attorney is preparing to indict her opponent for shady business
practices. But the indictment will not be formally issued until after the election.
ethics
The branch of philosophy that deals
with issues of right and wrong in
human affairs.
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Guidelines for Ethical Speaking 31
Nor can it be taken as evidence that her opponent is guilty—like all citizens, he
has the right to be presumed innocent until proven otherwise.
Still, news of the indictment could be enough to throw the election Felicia’s
way, and her advisers urge her to make it an issue in her remaining campaign
speeches. Should Felicia follow their advice?
There are creditable arguments to be made on both sides of the ethical dilemma faced by Felicia Robinson. She has tried to run an honest campaign, and she is troubled by the possibility of unfairly attacking her opponent— despite the fact that he has shown no such scruples himself. Yet she knows that the impending indictment may be her last chance to win the election, and she is convinced that a victory for her opponent will spell disaster for the city’s school system. Torn between her commitment to fair play, her desire to be elected, and her concern for the good of the community, she faces the age-old ethical dilemma of whether the ends justify the means. “So,” you may be asking yourself, “what is the answer to Felicia Robin- son’s dilemma?” But in complex cases such as hers there are no cut-and-dried answers. As the leading book on communication ethics states, “We should formulate meaningful ethical guidelines, not inflexible rules.” 1 Your ethical decisions will be guided by your values, your conscience, your sense of right and wrong. But this does not mean such decisions are simply a matter of personal whim or fancy. Sound ethical decisions involve weighing a potential course of action against a set of ethical standards or guidelines. Just as there are guidelines for ethical behavior in other areas of life, so there are guidelines for ethical conduct in public speaking. These guidelines will not automatically solve every ethical quandary you face as a speaker, but knowing them will provide a reliable compass to help you find your way.
Guidelines for Ethical Speaking
MAKE SURE YOUR GOALS ARE ETHICALLY SOUND Not long ago, I spoke with a former student—we’ll call her Melissa—who had turned down a job in the public relations department of the American Tobacco Institute. Why? Because the job would have required her to lobby on behalf of the cigarette industry. Melissa did not believe she could ethically promote a product that she saw as responsible for thousands of deaths and illnesses each year. Given Melissa’s view of the dangers of cigarette smoking, there can be no doubt that she made an ethically informed decision. On the other side of the coin, someone with a different view of cigarette smoking could make an ethi- cally informed decision to take the job. The point of this example is not to judge the rightness or wrongness of Melissa’s decision (or of cigarette smoking), but to illustrate how ethical considerations can affect a speaker’s choice of goals. Your first responsibility as a speaker is to ask whether your goals are ethically sound. During World War II, Hitler stirred the German people to condone war, invasion, and genocide. More recently, we have seen politicians who betray the public trust for personal gain, business leaders who defraud investors of millions of dollars, preachers who lead lavish lifestyles at the
ethical decisions
Sound ethical decisions involve
weighing a potential course of action
against a set of ethical standards or
guidelines.
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32 CHAPTER 2 Ethics and Public Speaking
expense of their religious duties. There can be no doubt that these are not worthy goals. But think back for a moment to the examples of speechmaking given in Chapter 1. What do the speakers hope to accomplish? Improve the quality of education. Report on a business project. Pay tribute to a fellow worker. Support Habitat for Humanity. Few people would question that these goals are ethically sound. As with other ethical issues, there can be gray areas when it comes to assessing a speaker’s goals—areas in which reasonable people with well-defined standards of right and wrong can legitimately disagree. But this is not a rea- son to avoid asking ethical questions. If you are to be a responsible public speaker, you cannot escape assessing the ethical soundness of your goals.
BE FULLY PREPARED FOR EACH SPEECH “A speech,” as Jenkin Lloyd Jones states, “is a solemn responsibility.” You have an obligation—to yourself and to your listeners—to prepare fully every time you stand in front of an audience. The obligation to yourself is obvious: The better you prepare, the better your speech will be. But the obligation to your listeners is no less important. Think of it this way: The person who makes a bad 30-minute speech to an audience of 200 people wastes only a half hour of her or his own time. But that same speaker wastes 100 hours of the audience’s time—more than four full days. This, Jones exclaimed, “should be a hanging offense!” At this stage of your speaking career, of course, you will probably not be facing many audiences of 200 people. And you will probably not be giving many speeches in which the audience has come for the sole purpose of listen- ing to you. But neither the size nor the composition of your audience changes your ethical responsibility to be fully prepared. Your speech classmates are as worthy of your best effort as if you were addressing a jury or a business meet- ing, a union conference or a church congregation, the local Rotary club or even the United States Senate. Being prepared for a speech involves everything from analyzing your audi- ence to creating visual aids, organizing your ideas to rehearsing your delivery. Most crucial from an ethical standpoint, though, is being fully informed about your subject. Why is this so important? Consider the following story:
Victoria Nuñez, a student at a large state university, gave a classroom speech
on suicide prevention. Victoria had learned about the topic from her mother, a
volunteer on a suicide-prevention hotline, but she also consulted her psychology
textbook, read several magazine articles on the warning signs of suicide, and
interviewed a crisis-intervention counselor at the campus health service.
In addition to her research, Victoria gave a lot of thought to planning and
delivering her speech. She created a handout for the class listing signs that a
person might attempt suicide and providing contact information for local mental-
health resources. On the day of her speech, Victoria was thoroughly prepared—
and she gave an excellent presentation.
Only a few days later, one of Victoria’s classmates, Paul Nichols, had a con-
versation with his roommate that raised a warning flag about whether the room-
mate might be depressed and in danger of suicide. Based on the information in
Victoria’s speech, Paul spoke to his roommate, got him to talk about his worries,
and convinced him to seek counseling. Paul might have saved his roommate’s life,
thanks to Victoria’s speech.
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Guidelines for Ethical Speaking 33
This is an especially dramatic case, but it demonstrates how your speeches can have a genuine impact on your listeners. As a speaker, you have an ethical responsibility to consider that impact and to make sure you prepare fully so as not to communicate erroneous information or misleading advice. If Victoria had not done such a thorough job researching her speech, she might have given her classmates faulty information—information that might have had tragic results. No matter what the topic, no matter who the audience, you need to explore your speech topic as thoroughly as possible. Investigate the whole story; learn about all sides of an issue; seek out competing viewpoints; get the facts right. Not only will you give a better speech, you will also fulfill one of your major ethical obligations.
BE HONEST IN WHAT YOU SAY Nothing is more important to ethical speechmaking than honesty. Public speak- ing rests on the unspoken assumption that “words can be trusted and people will be truthful.” 2 Without this assumption, there is no basis for communica- tion, no reason for one person to believe anything that another person says. Does this mean every speaker must always tell “the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth”? We can all think of situations in which this is impossible (because we do not know the whole truth) or inadvisable (because it would be tactless or imprudent). Consider a parent who tells his two-year- old daughter that her screeching violin solo is “beautiful.” Or a speaker who tells a falsehood in circumstances when disclosing the truth might touch off mob violence. Few people would find these actions unethical. 3 In contrast, think back to the case of Brian Pertzborn at the start of this chapter. Brian knew he had embezzled money from the charity. Yet he denied
Among current public speakers,
United Nations Secretary General Ban
Ki-moon is well regarded for his
ethically sound goals and public
speaking skills.
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34 CHAPTER 2 Ethics and Public Speaking
that he had done so, even as he was profiting at the expense of people who depended on the charity’s services. There is no way to excuse Brian’s behavior. Such blatant contempt for the truth is one kind of dishonesty in public speaking. But more subtle forms of dishonesty are just as unethical. They include juggling statistics, quoting out of context, misrepresenting sources, painting tentative findings as firm conclusions, citing unusual cases as typical examples, and substituting innuendo and half-truths for evidence and proof. All of these violate the speaker’s duty to be accurate and fair in presenting information. While on the subject of honesty in speechmaking, we should also note that ethically responsible speakers do not present other people’s words as their own. They do not plagiarize their speeches. This subject is so important that we devote a separate section to it later in this chapter.
AVOID NAME-CALLING AND OTHER FORMS OF ABUSIVE LANGUAGE “Sticks and stones can break my bones, but words can never hurt me.” This popular children’s chant could not be more wrong. Words may not literally break people’s bones, but they can leave psychological scars as surely as sticks and stones can leave physical scars. As one writer explains, “Our identities, who and what we are, how others see us, are greatly affected by the names we are called and the words with which we are labeled.” 4 This is why almost all communication ethicists warn public speakers to avoid name-calling and other forms of abusive language.
Name-Calling and Personal Dignity Name-calling is the use of language to defame, demean, or degrade individu- als or groups. When applied to various groups in America, it includes such epithets as “fag,” “kike,” “nigger,” “honkey,” “wop,” “jap,” “chink,” and “spic.” Such terms have been used to debase people because of their sexual orienta- tion, religious beliefs, or ethnic background. These words dehumanize the groups they are directed against and imply that they do not deserve to be treated with dignity and respect. In Chapter 12, we will look at ways you can avoid biased language in your speeches. For now, the point to remember is that, contrary to what some people claim, avoiding racist, sexist, and other kinds of abusive language is not simply a matter of political correctness. Such language is ethically suspect because it devalues and stereotypes the people in question. Such language is also a destructive social force. When used repeatedly and systematically over time, it helps reinforce attitudes that encourage prejudice, hate crimes, and civil rights violations. 5 The issue is not one of politics, but of respecting the dignity of the diverse groups in contemporary society.
Name-Calling and Free Speech Name-calling and abusive language also pose ethical problems in public speaking when they are used to silence opposing voices. A democratic society depends upon the free and open expression of ideas. In the United States, all citizens have the right to join in the never-ending dialogue of democracy. As a public speaker, you have an ethical obligation to help preserve that right by avoiding tactics such as name-calling that inherently impugn the accuracy
name-calling
The use of language to defame,
demean, or degrade individuals or
groups.
ary.
