CENGAGE ADVANTAGE EDITION

BUILDING A SPEECH Eighth Edition

Sheldon Metcalfe Community College of Baltimore County

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Building a Speech, Eighth Edition, Advantage Edition Sheldon Metcalfe

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Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15 14 13 12 11

To my mother, who gave me the values, and my father, who gave me the vision

to write this book.

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Brief Contents

Preface xxi

Unit One SURVEYING THE LANDSCAPE

Chapter 1 Introducing the Study of Public Speaking 2

Chapter 2 Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension 15

Chapter 3 Building Your First Speech 28

Chapter 4 Analyzing Your Audience 43

Chapter 5 Improving Your Listening Skills 64

Chapter 6 Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking 81

Unit Two PREPARING THE FOUNDATION

Chapter 7 Selecting the Topic and Purpose 102

Chapter 8 Conducting Research 116

Chapter 9 Choosing Supporting Materials 141

Unit Three CREATING THE STRUCTURE

Chapter 10 Organizing the Body of the Speech 160

Chapter 11 Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion 179

Unit Four REFINING THE APPEARANCE

Chapter 12 Using Audiovisual Aids 206

Chapter 13 Considering Language 229

Chapter 14 Developing the Delivery 247

v

Unit Five CONSIDERING DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRUCTURE

Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform 270

Chapter 16 Speaking to Persuade 292

Chapter 17 Speaking to Persuade: Motivating Audiences 324

Chapter 18 Speaking for Special Occasions 340

Chapter 19 Speaking in Groups 357

v i Brief Contents

Contents

Preface xxi

Unit One Survey ing the Landscape

Chapter 1 Introducing the Study of Public Speaking 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE MODERN WORLD 3

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS 4

A Communication Model 5

The Sender: Encoding Ideas into Symbols 5

The Message 6

The Channel 6

The Receiver: Decoding Symbols into Ideas 6

Feedback 7

Setting 7

Noise 8

UNDERSTANDING THE TOOLS OF COMMUNICATION 10

APPLYING THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS 12

DESIGNING A PLAN FOR SUCCESS 13

SUMMARY 14

SKILL BUILDERS 14

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 14

Chapter 2 Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension 15 SPEECH ANXIETY IS COMMON 16

RESEARCH INTO STRESS AND COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION 17

REDUCING COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION 19

Face Anxiety Honestly and Overcome It 19

Develop a Positive Attitude 21

Adopt Constructive Behaviors 23

Maintain a Healthy Body 23

Be Thoroughly Prepared 24

Reward Yourself 24

Learn from Mistakes 25

Accept Constructive Criticism 25

vii

TAKING RESPONSIBILITY TO REDUCE APPREHENSION 26

SUMMARY 27

SKILL BUILDERS 27

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 27

Chapter 3 Building Your First Speech 28 EXTEMPORANEOUS DELIVERY AND SPEAKING STYLES 29

CREATING A BLUEPRINT 30

Step 1: Choose an Interesting, Well-Defined Topic 30

Step 2: Understand the General Purpose 31

Step 3: Conduct Extensive Research 31

Step 4: Write Specific Purpose and Thesis Statements 32

Step 5: Write a Comprehensive Outline 32

Step 6: Be Sensitive to Audience Members 33

Step 7: Understand Your Ethical Responsibilities 33

Step 8: Choose Extemporaneous Delivery 33

Step 9: Practice the Speech 33

Step 10: Be Confident and Prepared 35

THE CAREER SPEECH 36

Researching the Career Speech 36

Developing the Career Speech 37

SAMPLE SPEECH: CAREERS IN ANTHROPOLOGY 37

SUMMARY 41

SKILL BUILDERS 42

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 42

Chapter 4 Analyzing Your Audience 43 THE IMPORTANCE OF AUDIENCE ANALYSIS 44

Audience Perception of the Speaker 45

Audience Perception of the Topic 46

Motivations of the Audience 49

Physiological Needs 50

Safety Needs 50

Love Needs 50

Esteem Needs 50

Self-Actualization Needs 50

Impact of Social Groups on Listeners 51

Age 51

Gender 52

Religion 53

Cultural and Ethnic Origin 53

Educational Level, Occupation, and Interests 55

Income Level 56

v i i i Contents

Geographic Location 56

Social Organizations 56

Targeting Specific Groups 57

Impact of the Occasion on Listeners 58

The Purpose of the Occasion 58

The Physical Location of the Event 59

The Expectations of the Speaker 59

CONDUCTING AN AUDIENCE ANALYSIS 60

Collecting Demographic Data about the Audience 60

Informal Assessments 60

Surveys 60

Questionnaires 61

Interviews 61

Processing the Data with a Computer 62

Evaluating the Audience Profile 62

SUMMARY 62

SKILL BUILDERS 62

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 63

Chapter 5 Improving Your Listening Skills 64 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LISTENING 65

THE PROCESS OF LISTENING 66

KINDS OF LISTENING 68

Discriminative Listening 68

Evaluative Listening 69

Appreciative Listening 69

Empathic Listening 70

Active and Passive Listening 70

BARRIERS TO LISTENING: THE LACK OF BEING “PRESENT” 70

Yielding to Distractions 71

Blocking Out Communication 72

Listening Selectively 73

Overcriticizing the Speaker 74

Faking Attention 74

Avoiding Difficult or Unpleasant Listening Situations 74

HOW TO BECOME AN ACTIVE LISTENER AND SPEAKER 75

Withhold Judgment 75

Avoid the Appearance Trap 75

Don’t Be Easily Swayed by Delivery and Style 76

Give All Topics a Fair Hearing 76

Avoid Extraneous Mental Activity During the Speech 76

Give Honest, Attentive Feedback 76

Contents ix

Eliminate Distractions 78

Evaluate the Communication When It Is Finished 78

SUMMARY 79

SKILL BUILDERS 80

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 80

Chapter 6 Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking 81 THE NEED FOR ETHICS IN SOCIETY 83

EVALUATING A SPEAKER’S ETHICS 84

Honesty and the Speaker 84

The Speaker’s Reliability 87

The Speaker’s Motivations 87

The Speaker’s Policies 88

APPLYING ETHICAL STANDARDS 90

Be Honest 91

Direct Quotation 91

Paraphrased Passage 91

Plagiarized Passage 91

Advocate Ideas That Benefit Others 92

Evaluate Your Motives for Speaking 92

Develop a Speaking Code of Ethics 93

SAMPLE SPEECH: PRACTICE, PRACTICE, PRACTICE: KNOWING IS NOT THE SAME THING AS DOING 95

SUMMARY 99

SKILL BUILDERS 99

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 99

Unit Two Prepar ing the Foundat ion

Chapter 7 Selecting the Topic and Purpose 102 GETTING IDEAS 103

Your Own Knowledge and Experience 103

Brainstorming 104

Library Databases and the Internet 104

Ask for Help 104

SELECTING THE TOPIC 104

It Should Interest You, the Speaker 104

It Should be Sufficiently Narrow and Conform to the Time Limit 105

It Should Provide New Information 106

It Should be Appropriate 106

It Should Conform to the General Purpose 107

Speeches to Inform 107

Speeches to Persuade 107

Speeches to Entertain 108

x Contents

WRITING THE SPECIFIC PURPOSE 108

Be Clear, Concise, and Unambiguous 108

Include Only One Major Idea 109

Use a Declarative Statement 110

WORDING THE THESIS STATEMENT 110

Problems with the Thesis Statement 112

PUTTING IT TOGETHER 113

SUMMARY 114

SKILL BUILDERS 114

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 115

Chapter 8 Conducting Research 116 PREPARING FOR RESEARCH 117

ESTABLISHING CREDIBILITY 117

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES 118

ACCESSING THE LIBRARY 119

The Online Catalog 119

Databases 119

GUIDELINES FOR SEARCHING THE INTERNET 121

RESEARCHING REFERENCE SOURCES 123

Biographies 123

Directories and Handbooks 124

The Dictionary and Thesaurus 124

Encyclopedias 124

Almanacs, Yearbooks, and Statistical Publications 125

Collections of Quotations 125

Books 125

Magazines, Journals, and Newspapers 125

Legal Research 126

Audiovisual Aids 126

Interviews with Authorities 127

Legislative and Governmental Research 129

Institutional and Organizational Research 129

Specialized Libraries and Museums 130

KEEPING ACCURATE NOTES 130

INTERVIEWING 132

Preparing for the Interview 132

Conducting the Interview 133

Taking Notes During the Interview 134

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY: HOW TO RECORD AN ENTRY 134

AVOIDING PLAGIARISM 136

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT SPEECH RESEARCH AND CONSTRUCTION 136

Contents xi

Be Willing to Test Information 136

Be Organized 138

View Ideas from Different Perspectives 138

Think for Yourself 139

SUMMARY 140

SKILL BUILDERS 140

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 140

Chapter 9 Choosing Supporting Materials 141 MAKING THE APPROPRIATE SELECTION 142

STATISTICS, POLLS, AND SURVEYS 142

Using Statistics 142

Poll 143

Study 143

Startling Statistics 143

EXAMPLES, ILLUSTRATIONS, CASE STUDIES, AND NARRATIVES 144

Using Examples 144

Example 144

Hypothetical Example 145

Illustration 145

Case Study 146

Narrative 147

QUOTATIONS AND TESTIMONY 147

Using Quotations and Testimonies 148

Quotation 148

Expert Testimony 148

Prestige Testimony 149

Personal Testimony 149

VISUAL EVIDENCE 149

COMPARISONS AND CONTRASTS 149

Using Comparisons and Contrasts 150

PERSONAL EXPERIENCE AND OBSERVATION 151

Using Experience and Observation 151

HUMOR AND ANECDOTES 152

Using Humor and Anecdotes 152

ROLE-PLAYING 153

Using Role-Playing Techniques 153

SAMPLE SPEECH: THE FLAG RAISINGS ON IWO JIMA 154

SUMMARY 157

SKILL BUILDERS 157

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 157

xi i Contents

Unit Three Creat ing the Structure

Chapter 10 Organizing the Body of the Speech 160 APPROACHING ORGANIZATION LOGICALLY 161

PRINCIPLES OF OUTLINING 161

Building Block One: The Body Should Contain Between Two and Four Main Points or Numerals in a Five- to Seven-Minute Speech 162

Building Block Two: Main Points in the Body Should be Structured in an Organizational Sequence that is Logical, Interesting, and Appropriate to the Topic 162

Chronological Sequence 162

Spatial Sequence 163

Cause-Effect Sequence 164

Topical Sequence 164

Other Sequences 165

Building Block Three: A System of Roman Numerals, Letters, and Arabic Numbers Should be Combined with Indentation to Identify Main and Subordinate Levels 166

Building Block Four: The Outline Should Include Supporting Materials That are Coordinated and Subordinated in a Logical Manner 167

Building Block Five: Every Subdivision must Contain at Least Two Items 169

Building Block Six: Each Point Should Include Only One Topic or Idea 170

Building Block Seven: Main Points (Numerals) and Supporting Items Should be Linguistically Parallel 171

Building Block Eight: The Outline Should be Expressed in Either Sentences or Topics 172

Building Block Nine: The Outline Should Identify Sources for Major Supporting Materials 173

Building Block Ten: The Outline Should Include External Transitions Between Main Numerals 174

YOUR SPEAKING NOTES 175

SUMMARY 177

SKILL BUILDERS 177

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 178

Chapter 11 Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion 179 PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION 180

THE INADEQUATE INTRODUCTION 180

PLANNING AN EFFECTIVE INTRODUCTION 181

Examples, Stories, and Illustrations 182

Shocking Statement or Situation 183

Statistics 184

Questions 185

Quotation 186

Suspense 186

Contents xi i i

Personal Reference, Compliment, or Reference to the Occasion 187

Humor 188

The Flexible Introduction 189

Combination of Strategies 190

OUTLINING THE INTRODUCTION 190

PURPOSE OF THE CONCLUSION 191

THE INADEQUATE CONCLUSION 191

PLANNING THE EFFECTIVE CONCLUSION 192

Summary of Main Points 192

Quotation 193

Reference to the Introduction 194

Challenge or Appeal 194

Humor 195

Question 196

Story, Illustration, and Example 197

Statistics 197

OUTLINING THE CONCLUSION 198

SPEAKING NOTES FOR THE INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION 199

SAMPLE OUTLINE: RAISING THE MONITOR 200

SUMMARY 203

SKILL BUILDERS 203

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 203

Unit Four Ref in ing the Appearance

Chapter 12 Using Audiovisual Aids 206 TYPES OF AUDIOVISUAL AIDS 207

Electronic Media 207

The Data Projector and Computer 207

Devices for Capturing Text and Media 208

The Document Camera 208

The Touch Screen Monitor or Whiteboard 209

Audience Response Systems 209

Older Technologies 209

Graphs 213

Illustrations, Photographs, and Pictures 214

Posters, Flipcharts, and Chalkboards 218

Models and Objects 220

You as a Visual Aid 220

Copyright Cautions 223

xiv Contents

SAMPLE SPEECH: HOW DO AIRPLANE WINGS PRODUCE LIFT? 223

SUMMARY 227

SKILL BUILDERS 228

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 228

Chapter 13 Considering Language 229 DEVELOPING CLARITY 230

Avoiding Euphemisms 231

USING CONCRETE LANGUAGE 232

Denotation and Connotation 233

BUILDING A UNIQUE STYLE 234

Similes 234

Metaphors 235

Alliteration 236

Amplification 236

Antithesis 236

Repetition 237

Mnemonic Phrases 237

BEING APPROPRIATE 238

Be Aware of Cultural Differences 238

Recognize Differences Due to Gender 240

Avoid Offensive Terms 241

Eliminate Irrelevant Language 241

Avoid Trite Expressions 242

Eliminate Grammatical Errors 242

Build Vocabulary Skills 243

MAKING IDEAS MEANINGFUL AND INTERRELATED 243

Personal Pronouns 243

Transitions 244

SUMMARY 245

SKILL BUILDERS 246

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 246

Chapter 14 Developing the Delivery 247 DELIVERING THE SPEECH 248

PROPER BREATHING FOR VOCAL DELIVERY 249

VOCAL DELIVERY 250

Volume 250

Articulation 251

Pitch and Inflection 251

Quality 252

Rate 253

Contents xv

Pronunciation 253

Pauses 254

Emphasis and Phrasing 255

VISUAL, NONVERBAL DELIVERY 256

Eye Contact 256

Appearance 257

Gestures 257

Facial Expression 258

Body Position and Movement 259

Culture and Nonverbal Delivery 260

Gender and Nonverbal Delivery 261

COMBINING VOCAL AND VISUAL DELIVERY 263

BUILDING SKILLS IN DELIVERY 264

Know Your Material 264

Be Well Organized 264

Prepare Your Speaking Notes 264

Practice the Delivery 266

SUMMARY 267

SKILL BUILDERS 267

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 268

Unit Five Considering Dif ferent Types of Structure

Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform 270 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFORMATION AND PERSUASION 271

TYPES OF INFORMATIVE SPEECHES 272

The Descriptive Speech 272

An Example 273

Outlining the Descriptive Speech 275

The Demonstration Speech 276

An Example 278

Outlining the Demonstration Speech 278

The Speech of Definition 280

Other Informative Types: Reports, Lectures, and Personal Experience 282

SAMPLE SPEECH: RAISING THE MONITOR 285

Alternative Introduction: Series of Questions 289

Alternative Conclusion: Quotation 290

SUMMARY 290

SKILL BUILDERS 291

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 291

xv i Contents

Chapter 16 Speaking to Persuade 292 PERSUASION IN TODAY’S SOCIETY 293

THE NATURE OF PERSUASION 293

Speeches to Convince 294

Speeches to Stimulate 294

Speeches to Actuate 294

Selecting the Persuasive Topic 295

Wording the Proposition Statement 295

Propositions of Fact, Value, and Policy 296

ETHOS, PATHOS, AND LOGOS: THE MEANS OF PERSUASION 297

Ethos: The Ethical Appeal 297

Pathos: The Emotional Appeal 299

Identify Emotions 300

Understand Audience Emotions 301

Express Your Own Feelings 302

Connect Emotions to the Occasion 303

LOGOS: THE APPEAL TO REASON 304

Arguments Based on Enumeration 305

Arguments Based on Analogy 306

Arguments Based on Causation 307

Developing Rebuttal Arguments 308

METHODS OF ORGANIZING PERSUASIVE SPEECHES 311

Reasons 311

Problem-Solution 313

Comparative Advantages 315

Motivated Sequence 316

SAMPLE SPEECH: COMPUTER-ENHANCED ADVERTISING SHOULD BE CLEARLY LABELED 318

SUMMARY 322

SKILL BUILDERS 323

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 323

Chapter 17 Speaking to Persuade: Motivating Audiences 324

STRATEGIES FOR MOTIVATING LISTENERS 325

Appeal to the Needs of the Audience 325

Physical 325

Safety and Security 325

Love 325

Esteem 326

Self-Actualization 326

Appeal to Listeners’ Beliefs and Values 326

Contents xv i i

Provide Listeners with Incentives 327

Involve the Audience Emotionally 328

THE SPEECH TO ACTUATE 329

Attention Step 329

Need Step 329

Satisfaction Step 330

Visualization Step 330

Action Step 330

Phrasing the Thesis 330

APPLYING THE MOTIVATED SEQUENCE 331

Attention Step 331

Need Step 331

Satisfaction Step 332

Visualization Step 332

Action Step 333

Outlining the Motivated Sequence 335

SAMPLE SPEECH: GENOCIDE IN SUDAN 336

SUMMARY 338

SKILL BUILDERS 339

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 339

Chapter 18 Speaking for Special Occasions 340 TYPES OF SPECIAL-OCCASION SPEECHES 341

The Speech of Tribute 341

Construct a Brief Biographical Sketch 341

Acknowledge Significant Achievements and Virtues 341

Convey Hope and Encouragement 341

The Presentation Speech 342

The Acceptance Speech 343

The Speech of Dedication 344

The Speech of Welcome 345

The Speech of Introduction 345

The Keynote Speech 346

The Nominating Speech 347

The Farewell Speech 348

The Victory Speech 348

The Commencement Speech 349

The After-Dinner Speech 349

Toasts 350

SAMPLE SPEECH: DEDICATION OF THE WORLD WAR II MEMORIAL 352

SUMMARY 355

SKILL BUILDERS 355

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 356

xv i i i Contents

Chapter 19 Speaking in Groups 357 CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALL GROUPS 358

Shared Goals 358

Group Interaction 359

Size 359

Time Period 359

Leadership 359

DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL GROUPS 360

Forming 360

Storming 361

Norming 361

Performing 361

SOLVING PROBLEMS IN GROUPS 361

Questions for Discussion 361

Questions of Fact 361

Questions of Value 362

Questions of Policy 362

Developing a Problem-Solving Agenda 362

Define the Problem 362

Narrow the Problem 362

Analyze the Issue 363

Set Up Criteria 363

Suggest Solutions 363

Apply Criteria to Solutions 364

Implement the Selected Solution 364

Monitor the Success of the Solution 364

A Sample Agenda 365

PARTICIPATING IN GROUPS 365

Group-Centered Behavior 366

Be an Active Observer 366

Support Group Procedure 366

Be Reliable 366

Be Willing to Compromise 366

Be Courteous and Respectful 367

Encourage and Energize Members 367

Self-Centered Behavior 367

LEADERSHIP IN SMALL GROUPS 369

Leadership Theories 369

Positive Leadership Behaviors 369

Be Prepared 369

Keep to Time Limits 370

Be Organized 371

Know When to Intervene 371

Contents xix

SPECIAL DISCUSSION FORMATS 374

Focus Groups 374

The Symposium 375

The Panel 375

The Forum 376

Buzz Groups 376

Role-Playing Groups 376

SUMMARY 376

SKILL BUILDERS 377

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 377

Notes 378

Glossary 387

Suggested Topic Areas 395

Index 400

xx Contents

Preface

Public speaking is a building process wherein students gradually acquire skills in speech research, organization, and delivery. Students learn these skills step-by-step from their own experiences, by observing the presentations of others, through peer criticism, and from the guidance of effective instructors. This book establishes a caring environment for the learning process using a conversational style that aims to both interest and moti- vate students while conveying encouragement through topics such as apprehension and listening that will help students to realize that they are not alone in their struggles. It is grounded in the philosophy that students can master the steps of speech construction if provided with a caring environment, clear blueprints, and creative examples.

PLAN OF THE BOOK The five units in this book organize skills in a sequence that is meaningful and under- standable to students.

Unit One, “Surveying the Landscape,” presents modern theories of communication and a brief overview of communication in our contemporary world. In addition, it con- siders apprehension, introduces students to their first speaking experience, and includes chapters on listening and ethics.

Unit Two, “Preparing the Foundation,” describes how to select topics, write purpose statements, conduct research, and choose supporting materials for speeches.

Unit Three, “Creating the Structure,” discusses outlining as well as speech introduc- tions and conclusions.

Unit Four, “Refining the Appearance,” describes the refinements necessary to com- plete speech construction. It helps students build skills in delivery and language, explains the use of visual aids, and includes a sample demonstration speech.

Unit Five, “Considering Different Types of Structures,” discusses descriptive and process speeches and includes a sample descriptive speech; examines persuasive speaking, with sample convincing and actuating speeches; considers presentations for special occa- sions, including the after-dinner speech; and explores the dynamics of speaking in group situations.

FEATURES OF THE EIGHTH EDITION The Eighth Edition retains all of the popular features of previous editions, including a conversational style, vivid examples, and guidelines for speeches. It retains essential chapters on apprehension, listening, ethics, and discussion of diversity. In addition, Building a Speech, Eighth Edition, includes the following new and revised features:

Expanded and Relocated Apprehension Chapter Since studies show that speech apprehension is among the top two fears of most Amer- icans, “Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension” is now presented as Chapter 2 to help students handle this anxiety early in the course. Chapter 2 has been

xxi

expanded as well. The section titled, “Accept Anxiety Honestly and Face It,” includes a three-column table that identifies a fear, asks challenge questions in response to the fear, and provides encouraging statements of affirmation to help students reduce their anxiety. In the section “Adopt Constructive Behaviors,” journaling before and after a speech is recommended and sample journal entries are provided for student practice. There are also updated examples of celebrities who have reported anxiety before per- formances and a new box with a statement about stage fright by actor Al Pacino.

Updated Chapter 1 Chapter 1, “Introducing the Study of Public Speaking,” includes a new discussion of past and present speakers who have influenced our modern world. In addition to well known leaders of the past such as Roosevelt, Kennedy, King, and Reagan, Chapter 1 describes how Elie Wiesel, Bono, Mother Teresa, Nelson Mandela, Princess Diana, Christopher Reeve, Michael J. Fox, Condoleezza Rice, Hillary Clinton, and Michelle Obama have used communication to shape our world. Reviewers suggested that the inclusion of con- temporary speakers replace discussion of ancient orators presented in earlier editions.

Boxed Examples in Audience Analysis Chapter Two example boxes have been added to Chapter 4, “Analyzing Your Audience.” One box includes a discussion of political lightening rods Nancy Pelosi and Sarah Palin and how public perception has changed over time regarding the policies and actions of these controversial political women. Another includes an example from Wall Street Journal col- umnist Jeffrey Zaslow who describes how a phrase he used as a college student was hurt- ful to the ethnicity of his Spanish professor.

New Boxed Examples and Building Strategies in Listening Chapter New example boxes have also been added to Chapter 5, “Improving Your Listening Skills.” “Caught by the Camera” describes how a sports writer for the Daily Herald in Arlington, Illinois was captured napping in a photograph when he should have been doing his job taking notes as a reporter and listening to a political speaker. A second boxed example presents an individual who is so absorbed in texting that she loses aware- ness and creates an embarrassing situation for herself. The chapter concludes with a new “building” box that summarizes skills that students need when listening to the content and delivery of a speech.

Updated Ethics Chapter Chapter 6, “Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking,” includes updated examples of the ethical lapses of prominent speakers in business and politics. The chapter also con- tains a boxed example describing accusations of plagiarism that caused Senator Joseph Biden to withdraw from the Democratic presidential primary race in the 1980s. There is also a boxed example describing an incident in which a Columbia University valedic- torian plagiarized a portion of his commencement address to his 2010 graduating class. In addition to an updated example of plagiarism, the chapter presents a new “building” box to help students develop a code of ethics for public speaking.

Revised MLA Examples in Research Chapter Since the Modern Language Association recently revised the format for bibliographic citations, all new bibliographic examples in Chapter 8, “Conducting Research,” conform to the new MLA standard. There are also updated examples for citing sources, new note card illustrations, and a new plagiarism example.

xxi i Preface

Revisions and Additions to Supporting Materials Chapter In Chapter 9, “Choosing Supporting Materials,” polls, studies, and startling statistics are more clearly defined and indicated. In addition, brief and hypothetical examples, illustra- tions, case studies, and narratives are more clearly differentiated. The chapter also now includes and explains the differences among expert, prestige, and personal testimony. Although visual aids are extensively presented and discussed in Chapter 12, visual evi- dence is introduced as a significant supporting material in Chapter 9.

Additional Development of the Introduction and Conclusion Chapter 11, “Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion,” further develops and clarifies the purpose of the introduction and conclusion. In addition, the chapter presents exam- ples of ineffective beginnings and endings and explains why they are poor. The chapter also clearly highlights the thesis to each sample introduction so students can see the sig- nificance of its placement as the last line of the introduction.

Updated Terminology in the Visual Aids Chapter In Chapter 12, “Using Audiovisual Aids,” terminology in the electronic media section has been updated and revised to help student speakers understand how current advance- ments such as audience response systems, document cameras, whiteboards, touch screens, and file capturing can help speakers create visuals more easily and stimulate added inter- est among listeners. A new section is also included titled, “Copyright Cautions,” to help students understand the important legal difference between “fair use” and “commercial use” for copyrighted visual and textual materials that require written permission.

Revised Speaking Notes in Delivery Chapter The section titled, “Prepare Your Speaking Notes,” in Chapter 14, “Developing the Delivery,” has been expanded and revised. Since extemporaneous delivery is so impor- tant for the beginning speaker to learn, this section provides five sample note cards to show students how to use key words and brief phrases to present a speech instead of a written manuscript. This section also explains and visually illustrates how students can use markings on their speaking notes to remind them where to state sources, use visuals, or emphasize significant words and phrases. The speech titled, “How Do Airplane Wings Produce Lift?,” from Chapter 12 is used for the sample note cards.

New Table Identifying Fallacies in Persuasive Chapter In addition to describing ethical and logical fallacies in Chapter 16, “Speaking to Persuade,” now contains a comprehensive table that identifies, defines, and provides examples of the principal ethical and logical fallacies presented in the chapter for easier student access. Additional logical fallacies are also included to help students avoid com- mon speaking errors. The chapter also contains an updated boxed example showing students how to construct persuasive arguments on opposing sides of the controversial issue, “The detention facility at Guantanamo Bay should be closed and detainees should be brought to trial in U.S. civilian courts.”

Original Cartoon Illustrations In addition to other updates and changes, the Eighth Edition includes original cartoons drawn by artist George Goebel whose Greek cartoon appears in Chapter 1 and was also featured in earlier editions. New cartoons in this edition include a nervous speaker in Chapter 2, texting in front of truck in Chapter 5, and gullible students in a strange med- ical lecture in Chapter 8.

Preface xxi i i

STUDENT RESOURCES Building a Speech, Eighth Edition, features an outstanding array of supplements to assist in making this course as meaningful and effective as possible. Available student resources include:

• Resource Center. This useful site offers a variety of rich learning assets designed to enhance the student experience. Organized by tasks as well as by chapter, these assets include self-assessments, Web activities, chapter outlines, and review questions. The Resource Center also features course resources such as Speech Builder Express™ 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and more.

• Speech Builder Express™ 3.0. This online program coaches students through the entire process of preparing speeches and provides the additional support of built-in video speech models, a tutor feature for concept review, direct links to InfoTrac College Edition, an online dictionary and thesaurus, and leading professional organizations’ online documentation style guidelines and sample models. Equipped with their speech type or purpose, a general topic, and preliminary research, students respond to the program’s customized prompts to complete interactive activities that require critical thinking about all aspects of creating an effective speech. Students are able to specify a speech purpose, identify an organizational pattern, write a thesis statement or central idea, establish main points, integrate support material, craft transitions, plan visual aids, compose their speech introduction and conclusion, and prepare their bibliography. Students are also able to stop and start work whenever they choose and to complete, save online, export to Microsoft Word®, or e-mail up to five outlines.

• InfoTrac College Edition with InfoMarks™. This online library provides access to more than 18 million reliable, full-length articles from over 5,000 academic and popular periodicals. Students also have access to InfoMarks—stable URLs that can be linked to articles, journals, and searches to save valuable time when doing research—and to the InfoWrite online resource center, where students can access grammar help, critical thinking guidelines, guides to writing research papers, and much more. For more information about InfoTrac College Edition and the InfoMarks linking tool, visit www.infotrac-college.com and click on “User Demo.”

• Book Companion Website. The website features study aids such as chapter outlines, flash cards, and other resources for mastering glossary terms as well as chapter quizzes that help students check their understanding of key concepts.

• iChapters.com. This online store provides students with exactly what they’ve been asking for: choice, convenience, and savings. A 2005 research study by the National Association of College Stores indicates that as many as 60 percent of students do not purchase all required course material; however, those who do are more likely to succeed. This research also tells us that students want the ability to purchase “a la carte” course material in the format that suits them best. Accordingly, iChapters.com is the only online store that offers eBooks at up to 50 percent off, eChapters for as low as $1.99 each, and new textbooks at up to 25 percent off, plus up to 25 percent off print and digital supplements that can help improve student performance.

• A Guide to the Basic Course for ESL Students. Written specifically for communi- cators whose first language is not English, this guide features FAQs, helpful URLs, and strategies for managing communication anxiety.

• Conquer Your Speech Anxiety. Learn How to Overcome Your Nervousness About Public Speaking by Karen Kangas Dwyer. Drawing from the latest research, this

xxiv Preface

innovative resource helps students understand and develop a plan to overcome their fear of public speaking. The CD-ROM includes both audio relaxation exercises and techniques for overcoming anxiety.

RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTORS Building a Speech, Eighth Edition, also features a full suite of resources for instructors. To evaluate any of these instructor or student resources, please contact your local Cengage Learning representative for an examination copy, contact our Academic Resource Cen- ter at 800-354-9706, or visit us at www.cengage.com/. Instructor resources include:

• Instructor’s Resource Manual. Written by the author, the Instructor’s Resource Manual provides a comprehensive teaching system. Included in the manual are a syllabus, criteria for evaluation, chapter objectives, in-class activities, handouts, and transparency masters. All of the Skill Builder and InfoTrac College Edition exercises included on the Resource Center and companion website are included in the Instructor’s Resource Manual in case online access is unavailable or inconvenient. The Instructor’s Resource Manual includes a printed test bank that features class- tested and reliability-rated multiple-choice, true-false, short-answer, essay, and fill-in-the-blank test questions. Print and electronic versions are available.

• Instructor’s Website. The password-protected instructor’s website includes electronic access to the Instructor’s Resource Manual and other tools for teaching. To gain access to the website, simply request a course key by opening the site’s home page.

• PowerLecture. This CD-ROM contains an electronic version of the Instructor’s Resource Manual, ExamView computerized testing, and videos associated with Building a Speech. This all-in-one tool makes it easy for you to assemble, edit, and present materials for your course.

• Turn-It-In®. This proven online plagiarism-prevention software promotes fairness in the classroom by helping students learn to correctly cite sources and allowing instructors to check for originality before reading and grading papers and speeches. Turn-It-In quickly checks student work against billions of pages of Internet content, millions of published works, and millions of student papers and speeches and within seconds generates a comprehensive originality report.

• Wadsworth Communication Video and DVD Library. Wadsworth’s video and DVD series for speech communication includes communication scenarios for critique and analysis, student speeches for critique and analysis, and ABC News videos and DVDs for human communication, public speaking, interpersonal communication, and mass communication.

• The Teaching Assistant’s Guide to the Basic Course. Written by Katherine G. Hendrix of the University of Memphis, this resource was prepared specifically for new instructors. Based on leading communication teacher-training programs, this guide discusses some of the general issues that accompany a teaching role and offers specific strategies for managing the first week of classes, leading productive discus- sions, managing sensitive topics in the classroom, and grading students’ written and oral work.

• The Art and Strategy of Service-Learning Presentations, Second Edition. Written by Rick Isaacson and Jeff Saperstein of San Francisco State University, this handbook provides guidelines for connecting service-learning work with classroom concepts and advice for working effectively with agencies and organizations.

Preface xxv

• TLC Technology Training and Support. Get trained, get connected, and get the support you need for seamless integration of technology resources into your course with Technology Learning Connected (TLC). This unparalleled technology service and training program provides robust online resources, peer-to-peer instruction, personalized training, and a customizable program you can count on. Visit www. cengage.com/tlc to sign up for online seminars, first days of class services, technical support, or personalized, face-to-face training. Our online or on-site training is frequently led by one of our Lead Teachers, faculty members who are experts in using Cengage Learning technology, and can provide best practices and teaching tips.

• Custom Chapters. Create a text as unique as your course—quickly, simply, and affordably. As part of our flex-text program you can add your personal touch to Building a Speech with a course-specific cover and up to 32 pages of your own content, at no additional cost. Bonus chapters available now include expanded discussions of group speaking and mediated speaking.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A writing project of this scope cannot be accomplished without the assistance of many individuals. My thanks goes to the reviewers whose comments helped in the revi- sion of the Eighth Edition: Lynda Brown, Texas A&M International University; Beth Conomos, Erie Community College—North Campus; Tim Kelley, Northwest-Shoals Community College; Terri Main, Reedley College; Josh Misner, North Idaho College; and Ken Sherwood, Los Angeles City College.

I also wish to thank the Wadsworth team who provided advice and assistance for this new edition: Monica Eckman, acquisitions editor, Larry Goldberg, development editor.

I am indebted to my outstanding colleagues in the Speech Communication Depart- ment at the Community College of Baltimore County. Jennifer Kafka Smith graciously offered the speech “How Airplane Wings Produce Lift” in the visual aids chapter as well as suggestions for Chapters 17 and 19. Tim Thompson and Drew Kahl provided helpful perspectives and suggestions as they used the text in their basic speech communication classes. And my wonderful basic speech students deserve special praise for their continued help, creative examples, and energetic suggestions.

Sheldon Metcalfe

xxv i Preface

UNIT ONE Surveying the Landscape

Chapter 1 Introducing the Study of Public Speaking

Chapter 2 Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension

Chapter 3 Building Your First Speech

Chapter 4 Analyzing Your Audience

Chapter 5 Improving Your Listening Skills

Chapter 6 Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCING THE STUDY OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1 Recognize the importance of communication in the modern world

2 Describe the communication process

3 Understand the tools of communication

4 Apply the communication process

5 Describe three overall objectives for studying public speaking

• His high school commencement speaker was so boring that Blake unzipped his academic gown and slumped down in his seat to get some extra z’s.

• Teneka never took public speakers seriously. She thought they were all scam artists and lumped them together with politicians and used car salespeople.

• After Brooke walked away from a disagreement with her Dad about the contribu- tions of the hip-hop music industry, she thought of more things she wished she had said to support her side of the argument.

• Otis gets so nervous before he has to give a departmental report at work that he sometimes calls in sick to avoid the presentation.

• Every time he listened to his favorite politician deliver a speech, Chavez always wanted to hear more.

• Tasha’s physics professor ended the lecture by asking, “Do you have any questions?” Even though Tasha didn’t understand the instructor’s concepts, she didn’t speak up because she thought she would look stupid in front of other students.

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“Talking and eloquence arenot the same; to speak,and to speak well are two things. A fool may talk, but a wise man speaks.”—Ben Jonson

2

If you identified with any of the people in these situations, you are not alone. Many individuals express a variety of these feelings when it comes to presenting or listening to public speeches. This text is designed to help you handle some of these issues. This text also gives you some strategies that can help you to succeed when building your own presentations.

We’ll introduce the study of public speaking in Chapter 1 by considering the importance of communication in today’s world and exploring a contemporary communication model. Finally, we will look at some historical perspectives about communication and briefly discuss how to apply communication today.

We wish you success. Welcome!

Communication in the Modern World

Think of the numerous circumstances in your life that require some form of communica- tion activity. You use your iPhone to e-mail a friend. You take notes in an economics class where the instructor supports her lecture with PowerPoint slides. You argue with an officer at an airport security checkpoint about the new pat-down search procedures. You follow the assertive commands from a GPS navigation system to get to a party. You watch a CNN news report about a war against Libya. You prepare for a job interview you’ve located on www.monster.com. Each of these situations requires some form of communication skill. The airport encounter and job interview require a knowledge of persuasion. The economics lecture requires you to know how information is organized. The news report calls for evaluation and judgment. And in all of these communication examples, active listening skills are critical.

Communication is vital to each of us, whether in our own worlds or in the world community. Think of the 2010 mid-term elections where candidates were arguing about the high unemployment rate and the merits of the new health care bill. Or consider the popular evangelist Joel Osteen who has a congregation of thousands and is highly influ- ential with his messages of inspiration to millions of viewers on television. When we see graphic images of sick cows being prodded into slaughter houses, we worry about buying steaks at the grocery store. When we see the price of oil exceeding $100 a barrel, we begin to think about purchasing the most fuel-efficient vehicle available. We donate food, clothing, and emergency aid when we view the results of a devastating tsunami in northern Japan. We experience horror when we see a mass murderer taking innocent lives at a congresswoman’s town meeting in Tucson, Arizona. We examine our living standard when home foreclosures reach record levels, food prices soar, and the stock market plummets. We laugh when we hear a comedian do an impression of a famous politician or actor. We become silent when we see the flag-draped caskets of deceased soldiers being carried to their final resting places.

Every day of our lives, we apply principles of communication. We inform, we shape, and we move others; we are equally informed, molded, and moved by others. Our success in these everyday situations often depends upon how effectively we speak and how carefully we listen.

Success will take some energy on your part. But if you are willing to spend the time, you can improve your speaking skills and be more successful in each situation you encounter. Remember that your goal is not to be Maya Angelou, Will Smith, Jennifer Lopez, Brad Pitt, Oprah Winfrey, or George Clooney. Your goal is to be you: a more confident and effective you.

Key Terms body channel communication model conclusion decoding encoding feedback introduction message noise receiver sender setting Shannon and Weaver source symbol

Communication in the Modern World 3

The Communication Process

When we speak or listen in any given situation, most of us take communication for granted. Sometimes we succeed and sometimes we fail. But communication is not just a haphazard, trial-and-error occurrence. Often there are very good reasons for our success or failure. The more we understand how communication works, the more we can improve our skills.

A great many experts have written about communication and have developed theo- ries called communication models. In the 1940s, Claude Shannon, an engineer at the Bell Telephone Company, and Warren Weaver, a mathematician, wrote The Mathematical Theory of Communication,1 which became a classic in the field. Shannon and Weaver stated that in order for communication to take place, there must be a source, a message, a channel, and a receiver (Figure 1.1).

Although this model was helpful in understanding communication, it was later criticized for its lack of flexibility. The communication model was often illustrated as a flat line with a source at one end, the message and channel in the middle, and the receiver at the other end. The model tended to give the inaccurate impression that

Affliated with Parkinson’s disease, Emmy Award-Winning Actor Michael J. Fox has raised over 224 million dollars for research and testified before congress, advocating for improved treatments for Parkinson’s patients.

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4 Chapter 1 • Introducing the Study of Public Speaking

communication is a static activity that does not change or develop. The model may accurately simulate mechanical transmission of signals over a telephone line, but it does not describe the fluid interaction of human beings.

More recent theories have emphasized the idea that communication is dynamic: it is always changing, growing, and developing.2 These communication models can be illustrated by a circle rather than a line (Figure 1.2). Senders can receive messages as they are sending them. Receivers can likewise send and receive at the same time. Human communication can be adjusted to new feedback and influenced by the environment. Communication changes and unfolds on the basis of ever-changing human experiences.

A Communication Model The fact that you’ve made it to this point in your life means that you probably commu- nicate well. But we take all kinds of things for granted when we communicate. It’s helpful to break down communication into its individual components in order to under- stand the process. That’s the purpose of a communication model. We’ll consider seven aspects: sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, setting, and noise. To understand each part of the model, we will look at a simple example that happens whenever you or your classmates deliver a speech.

The Sender: Encoding Ideas into Symbols The sender originates communication. Within the sender are the ideas, thoughts, feel- ings, and intentions that begin the process of communication. Suppose that your speech instructor has assigned you to prepare an informative, descriptive speech about a person,

FIGURE 1.2 Example of Communication Model

FIGURE 1.1 Shannon and Weaver’s Mathematical Theory of Communication

The Communication Process 5

place, object, or event. The idea-thought-feeling “place” and “Hawaii” have just popped into your brain since you recently returned from a family trip to the Big Island. You think about the idea for a while until you encode it. Encoding is simply the thought process and motor skill of the sender that changes an idea-thought-feeling into an under- standable symbol. Symbols are verbal and nonverbal expressions or actions that have meaning. In this case, words such as Big Island, volcano, snorkeling, and luau symbolize the verbal meanings, and visuals such as a photo and a flowered lei could symbolize nonverbal meanings.

The Message Even though symbols have meanings, they must be arranged in some kind of logical structure. If you simply jumbled all your words together and threw them out randomly at your listeners, your ideas would make very little sense. You need a message, that is, a set of structured symbols. This is where you begin the process of organizing your thoughts. You might start by writing a thesis to explain what aspects of Hawaii you want to cover. For instance you might encode your thoughts into the following sentence: “A trip to the Big Island includes viewing the volcano, snorkeling through lava tubes, and experiencing a luau.” You have now arranged your word symbols into an organized message. Your message is clear, precise, and understandable. It has meaning to you and potentially to someone else. But even though you have organized the appropriate message, you have not yet been able to communicate to your audience.

The Channel The next step in the communication process is the selection of a channel. A channel is the means of transporting the message. The channels we use to transmit messages are sensory; we convey our messages through the five senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. To communicate, you now choose one or more of these sensory channels to convey the message of your speech. The most obvious channel is verbal. You start with an introduction that catches your listeners’ attention and follow it up by your thesis statement. But there are other channels as well that can make your speech really inter- esting to your listeners. You could show PowerPoint photos or a Google Earth image of Kilauea Crater. You could display objects such as macadamia nuts or let the audience smell the aroma of Kona coffee beans. You might even have a volunteer from the audi- ence feel a sample from a black sand beach. Each decision presents you with a different combination of sensory channels. You therefore make the decision to use all the techni- ques in order to employ as many senses as possible to communicate to your audience.

The Receiver: Decoding Symbols into Ideas At this point in the process, there is a sender (encoding the ideas into symbols), a message, and several channels. However, communication is still incomplete because no connection has been made to the receiver. The receiver is the destination, the goal of communication. When you are standing in front of your class, you now have the poten- tial for communication because you have a destination for the message: your listeners. You deliver your speech using all five channels of communication.

Immediately, the process that occurred to generate communication within the sender now takes place in reverse within the receiver. The receiver decodes, or changes, the symbols in your organized message or speech into ideas-thoughts-feelings that the receiver can use to give meaning to the message. Although we now have a receiver and decoding to add to the communication model, we still need a response to complete the communication circle (Figure 1.3).

6 Chapter 1 • Introducing the Study of Public Speaking

Feedback Feedback is a verbal or nonverbal response. Feedback can tell you whether communica- tion has occurred, how it has been received, and whether it has been understood. Feedback is a reaction from the receiver to the sender. It can be positive and negative, verbal and nonverbal. The wonderful thing about feedback is that it transforms senders into receivers and receivers into senders; in other words, we can send and receive messages simultaneously and alter our messages based upon the responses that occur. Feedback provides dimension and transforms communication from a one-way process into at least a two-way experience. If there are numerous senders and receivers, as in your speech class, the communication is multidimensional.

The most obvious feedback to your speech is from your classmates, the receivers. Having gone to all the trouble you just did to send your multichannel message about Hawaii, you would hope for positive feedback from your audience, such as nod- ding heads of agreement or even some laughter if you tell a humorous story. We hate to mention this, but negative feedback can occur as well. You might see someone frowning, a couple of listeners whispering to each other, or even someone rudely text messaging during your speech. If you see a listener frowning, you might alter your mes- sage by more clearly defining an unfamiliar term. You might increase your volume to drown out or stop the listeners who are whispering and ignore the text messager. Messages continue to change on the basis of new information sent and received. Feedback circularizes communication, provides dimension, and allows us to adapt to new circumstances.

Setting The communication process does not exist in a vacuum. Instead, it occurs in a setting, which includes occasion, environment, space, and time. A speaker must consider how the occasion influences the message. The physical and psychological conditions differ for a business meeting, an anniversary, a marriage proposal, a birthday, or a Christmas

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The Communication Process 7

party. When the occasion is clearly understood beforehand, the speaker adapts the message to the environment of the speech.

Think of your classroom as the setting for your speech. It might be a conference room where students are seated around a rectangle with a lectern at one end. Your speaking area might be a so-called “smart classroom” that contains a computer with internet access, a document camera (see Chapter 12), and a projector for enlarging visuals onto a screen. Or you might be presenting your speech in a large lecture hall in an amphitheater with a lectern set on a stage. Your class might meet first thing in the morning, after lunch, or late at night. The room might be lit by traditional fluorescent lighting or have floodlights that can be adjusted with dimmers.

You can see how important it is to understand the setting in supporting the commu- nication process. You need to adapt to the speech setting by making adjustments. In a small, intimate room with just a few students you could speak in a moderate volume and make eye contact with everyone. But in a large lecture hall you might have to increase your volume if there is no microphone and look at areas rather than each individual. The time of day might affect the level of audience alertness and you might need to make adjustments in speaking length as well as employ visuals or other channels to maintain your listeners’ attention. When thinking through any speaking situation, consider the aspects of occasion, environment, space, and time so that the setting will support your communication successfully.

Noise It is clear that in order for communication to take place there must be a sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, and setting. Noise, however, is a factor that can cause disruption or disturb the flow of communication. Noise is a distortion or a distraction to communication. It interferes with any part of the communication process and reduces the effectiveness of communication (Figure 1.4). There are three types of noise: external, internal, and semantic.

External Noise. External noise is any interference that can be perceived by the senses in the speech setting. It is important to emphasize that the word noise can, but does not always, refer to sound.

Any number of external distractions can occur while you are delivering a speech. The classroom may be too hot or cold, leaving the audience perspiring or shivering. A jazzy ring tone may go off on a listener’s cell phone. There may be an odor of melting tar because workmen are repairing the roof. Or you as a speaker could cause external noise by wearing something distracting, like long dangling earrings or a T-shirt with a bizarre graphic.

If the external noise is too great, listeners will stop paying attention and communi- cation will be lost. For communication to occur, either the interference must be elimi- nated or the sender must adapt to the situation. If you can control the environment, try to change it. Don’t wear clothing that causes external distractions, and turn the heat up if it’s too cold. Sometimes, however, you may not have control over the environment of your speech, but you can change how you relate to the situation. If the temperature is a problem, make a comment about it and condense your speech so your listeners (and you) don’t have to suffer. If the odor is offensive, make a joke about it. What is important is that you adapt to the external noise so that the audience sees that you are sensitive to it.

Internal Noise. Although you can usually sense the source of external noise, you may or may not always perceive the cause of internal noise. Internal noise is any inter- ference or disruption to communication that occurs within the sender or receiver. You may be nervous as you are giving the speech and you feel your heartbeat racing, your

8 Chapter 1 • Introducing the Study of Public Speaking

knees knocking, and your palms sweating. Your audience may have no idea what is going on inside you. In their minds you appear visibly calm and relaxed. As you are presenting the speech you may think that the scowling student in the back row is of- fended by something you said. But the frown may not be directed to you at all. He may have had a bad day, received a poor grade in a previous class, or simply be feeling sick.

Finding and resolving the source of the negative feedback is sometimes a way to un- derstand the disruption and restore communication. If you are the sender and nervous about a speaking event, try some deep breathing or relaxation exercises to take your mind off the occasion. If you are a receiver who is having personal conflicts, try to re- duce or resolve them as best you can so they do not take your focus away from paying attention to the speaker’s message.

Semantic Noise. One other disruption to communication is semantic noise. Semantic noise is any barrier to word or symbol meanings because of differences in envi- ronment, culture, language, pronunciation, values, or experiences. If one of your listeners is Japanese and speaks little English, there is an obvious language barrier to communica- tion. If one of the speakers in your class is a Boston native and tells the instructor “I’m sorry I’m late for class—I had to ‘paahk’ the ‘caah,’” the accent might create a semantic

FIGURE 1.4 How does this cartoon demonstrate the problem of noise in the setting? Can you relate the point of this illustration to any speaking situations that you’ve encountered? Ge

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The Communication Process 9

barrier. If a speaker uses the word soda, she could mean anything from a soft drink to an ice-cream-and-syrup concoction. If you are presenting your speech about Hawaii and use a huge word like humuhumunukunukuapua’a (really, it’s a word), you would need to explain to listeners that you are describing the Hawaiian state fish. If you gesture using the Hawaiian “shocka,” you would need to tell your audience that to Hawaiians, its meaning is similar to the thumbs-up motion. Whether verbal, nonverbal, cultural, or geographical, semantic noise interferes with communication. To be a more effective communicator, you must become aware of these disruptions and begin to adapt to the semantic noise that exists between sender and receiver.

Understanding the Tools of Communication

Now that you understand the process of communication, think of how leaders have used communication to shape and influence our world in the past and present.

When Franklin D. Roosevelt became president in 1932, the country was experienc- ing a severe economic depression with over 11,000 bank failures and almost 30% of all Americans out of work. In his Inaugural Address he confidently declared, “All we have to fear is, fear itself,” and he began a series of evening radio broadcasts he named “Fireside Chats” to comfort and reassure Americans that the nation’s problems would improve.

During the Civil Rights movement, Martin Luther King spoke out against racial discrimination and led protests against unjust laws and practices that treated African Americans unequally. On the steps of the Lincoln Memorial on August 28, 1963, he delivered his ringing speech, “I Have a Dream,” and stirred the conscience of a nation to overturn racial discrimination in all its forms.

John F. Kennedy was known for his power and eloquence during his brief presidency. In his Inaugural Address, he exhorted Americans to serve their country with the words, “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.” His strong language and actions averted the Cuban missile crisis of 1962 and his speech in front of the Berlin Wall reassured millions of Europeans that America would stand against communism.

SEMANTICS: The Power of Words After the horrendous terrorist attacks of September 11, America began to prepare a military response to the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. President George W. Bush referred to America’s military retaliation as a “crusade” and used this term to rally Americans and gain the support of America’s allies. But when many of the world’s Islamic people heard this remark, they reacted with hostility because they remem- bered the Crusades of the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries when Christians murdered thousands of Muslims in the effort to stop the spread of Islam and retake the Holy Land. Aware of the negative reaction, the president changed the name of the war to “Operation Infinite Justice.” This phrase was no more successful, because it appeared to many Muslims as if America was equating its military might with God’s divine justice. The president finally settled on the inoffensive term “Operation Enduring Freedom” to describe the military campaign in Afghanistan.3

10 Chapter 1 • Introducing the Study of Public Speaking

As president, Ronald Reagan also took a hard line against communism, referring to the Soviet Union as an “evil empire.” Like Kennedy, he stood at the Berlin Wall and challenged a new Soviet leader with the words, “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.” The Soviet Union fell and democracy blossomed in Russia after Reagan’s presidency due to the failure of the Soviet economy and successful negotiations with western leaders such as President Reagan.4

Think of contemporary leaders and celebrities who have also used the power of communication in their responsibilities or careers.

Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu was born in Yugoslavia and joined a Catholic order of nuns who sent her to India as a teacher. Quickly deciding that she had experienced a call from God, Mother Teresa, as she came to be known, began caring for the destitute and terminally ill in Calcutta’s slums. She founded outdoor schools and numerous centers where the blind, aged, and disabled could be cared for. She established a hospice where terminally ill patients could die with dignity, and her order, the Missionaries of Charity, constructed a leper colony known as the “Town of Peace.” During her life, Mother Teresa’s compassionate deeds for the poor and suffering became known world- wide and she received numerous awards for her humanitarian work, including the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979. At the time of her death in 1997, her order had established centers in over ninety countries with about 4,000 nuns and thousands of workers.5

Born in South Africa at the beginning of the twentieth century, Nelson Mandela took correspondence courses from the University of South Africa and studied law in Johannesburg. When segregation and apartheid became the official policy of the white, minority-ruled government, South Africa practiced blatant repression and discrimination against the black South African majority. An articulate and eloquent spokesman against racism, Mandela fought for his fellow South Africans through speeches, strikes, violation of travel restrictions, and illegal actions against official installations. He was brought to trial several times and was finally convicted of sabotage and treason. After serving twenty-six years in prison, Mandela was released in 1990 and became the leader of the African National Congress. He began negotiations with the minority government for black majority rule and shared the Nobel Peace Prize with the South African President. In 1994, Mandela became President of South Africa in the nation’s first completely free election and he served until his retirement in 1999.6

The late Princess Diana was a beautiful role model to millions in the world as she raised awareness about the dangers of land mines, children afflicted with HIV, and world hunger. In 1987, she helped to break the stigma of AIDS when she was photographed shaking hands with an AIDS sufferer. Her simple act of kindness promoted greater understanding and fought the ignorance and prejudice that was prevalent about HIV at the time.7

Raised in the segregated city of Birmingham, Alabama, Condoleezza Rice became Provost of Stanford University, National Security Advisor to President George W. Bush, and the first African American woman to be Secretary of State. With a firm, straight forward communication style, Secretary Rice helped to shape and articulate American foreign policy after the difficult events of September 11, 2001.8

Hillary Clinton was the first woman in American history to occupy the roles of First Lady, senator from New York, unsuccessful candidate for President, and Secretary of State. She travels the world as Secretary of State and is known for her frank and direct style when meeting with world leaders and negotiating treaties.

Born in Dublin, Ireland, Bono (Paul David Hewson) has been the lead singer and song writer of the group U2 for almost thirty years. But in the last decade, he has spent much of his time campaigning against poverty in the Third World and raising awareness

Understanding the Tools of Communication 11

and money to fight AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria. He has been nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize and was voted as Time magazine’s “Person of the Year” in 2005.9

Although noted for his acting roles in the Superman movies, the late Christopher Reeve became better known for his fight against his own paralysis and his tireless efforts to increase funding for Parkinson’s, Alzheimers, Multiple Sclerosis, and spinal cord regeneration. He testified before a Senate Appropriations Subcommittee in favor of federally funded stem cell research. For his book, Nothing Is Impossible: Reflections on a New Life, he received a Grammy nomination for Best Spoken Word Album.10

Canadian Michael J. Fox was an Emmy Award–winning actor in the 1980’s television sitcom, Family Ties, and he became a well-known Hollywood celebrity for his comic role in the Back to the Future movie series. Other movies followed as well as a starring role in the hit TV comedy, Spin City, before he was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease, which virtually ended his full-time acting career. As a result of his disease, which affects speech, balance, and movement, Fox became an advocate, testifying before Congress on behalf of stem-cell research and establishing the Michael J. Fox Foundation that has raised over 224 million dollars for research to find better treatments for Parkinson’s patients.11

Born in Romania, Elie Wiesel is a Jewish-American and a survivor of the Holocaust. In 1944, the Nazis uprooted his family and 20,000 fellow Jews from their homes and deported them to the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp, where he never saw his mother and sister again. He has written and spoken extensively about the beatings, star- vation, and slave labor that victims suffered in Hitler’s death camps at Buchenwald and Auschwitz. He has authored over fifty books and has become a political activist regard- ing peace in the Middle East, genocide in Sudan, and other worldwide injustice. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1986.12

Describing her most important role as a mother of Malia and Sasha, First Lady Michelle Obama is respected for her campaign against childhood obesity and her support of better nutrition in American schools. She has also spoken on behalf of the needs of military families and those wounded in battle. Other priorities for Mrs. Obama have been to encourage Americans to engage in national service and to promote the arts and art education.13

Each of these public figures teaches us the powerful tools that are necessary to communicate ideas and shape opinions. We can learn from the reassurance of Roosevelt, the resounding phrases of King and Kennedy, the boldness of Reagan, the compassion of Mother Teresa and Princess Diana, the selflessness of Reeve and Fox, the courage of Mandela and Wiesel, the generosity of Bono, the firmness of Rice, the frankness of Clinton, and the service of Obama. When you understand the tools of communication and practice the skills introduced in this text, you can be more successful in the messages you develop in the workplace, at home, and in your relationships of everyday life.

Applying the Communication Process

Think back to the situations we presented at the beginning of the chapter. Blake is bored with his commencement speaker. Is it Blake’s problem or is it the speaker’s? Maybe it’s both. Blake has shut off all communication and has decided to go to sleep instead of listening. There is no possibility that he will receive any communication from the speaker by turning off. But commencement speakers are too often insensitive to their listeners. Graduations frequently take place in non-air-conditioned auditoriums during the month of June and graduates, dressed in hot academic gowns, are in no mood to

12 Chapter 1 • Introducing the Study of Public Speaking

hear a long-winded speech full of trite phrases. The most successful commencement speakers are those who connect to their audiences and recognize that the occasion is about the graduates—not the speech. Remember the discussion of external noise earlier in this chapter? In this circumstance, the effective commencement speaker would acknowledge the distractions of the setting, attempt to make audience members more comfortable, and emphasize her intention to be brief.

Then there is Teneka who thinks that public speaking is performed by scam artists. Modern society has certainly produced many ruthless leaders, such as Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Osama bin Laden, and Jim Jones, who have misused their speaking gifts to victimize people. But as we’ve seen in this chapter, there are just as many others, such as Martin Luther King, Jr., Nelson Mandela, Princess Diana, and Mother Teresa, who have used their speaking power and actions to improve the lives of millions. We will explore more about the ethical considerations of public speaking in Chapter 6.

Otis and Tasha have similar problems: they are both very anxious about speaking in public. Tasha lacks confidence in her ability and Otis is so afraid of delivering a speech that he’d rather take his sick leave than give a report to his coworkers. As we’ll discover in Chapter 5, fear of speaking in public ranks among the top two fears of most Americans. But there is good news! Taking a basic speech course as you are doing can actually help to reduce your anxiety.

Brooke wanted to stand her ground when arguing about hip-hop with her Dad. But she went away feeling that she didn’t make the strongest case to support her ideas. In Chapter 16, you can learn how to build credible persuasive arguments so you can be more confident in the strength of your positions.

Finally, there is Chavez, who absorbs every word of a politician he admires. But when listening to a speaker, it is critical to weigh variables such as emotion, ethics, and charisma to determine what part they play in persuasion. In Chapters 4, 6, and 16, we’ll discuss how these factors can interact positively or negatively to influence an audience.

Designing a Plan for Success

You now find yourself in a course where you will be required to present speeches to an audience. This experience is important for your growth and development as a communicator. Learning from your classroom successes and failures should help you in communication situations beyond the course. We will discuss many concepts and principles, but there are three overall objectives for you to achieve:

1. You should be able to critically evaluate speaking situations. Be able to understand and evaluate the speaking situation. What makes a “good” speaker? What constitutes a “good” speech? What are some aspects of the audience you need to consider when preparing a speech? What are some factors about the occasion you should know before making a presentation? When you can survey the landscape and answer some of these questions about the speaking situation, you are well on your way to delivering successful speeches.

2. You should be able to plan, prepare, and organize speeches. To speak effectively, you must prepare effectively. An architect draws a set of blueprints with clear specifications before a builder can erect a house. And although it may seem time-consuming, a speaker must structure ideas into a coherent plan that forms an introduction, body, and conclusion before presenting a speech to an audience. Effective planning takes effort, but the process is not necessarily difficult.

Designing a Plan for Success 13

In fact, if you have put sufficient time into researching and outlining your speech, you may find that speechmaking is a lot easier than you expected.

3. You should be able to deliver speeches in front of an audience with ease. How well do you communicate your ideas in public? Do you appear confident, knowledgeable, and enthusiastic about your topic? Are you able to deliver different types of speeches in different speaking situations? Are you able to progress logically from one idea to another? When you look at members of the audience, do you actually “see” them? Do you concentrate on what you are speaking about at a given moment, or does your mind wander? Do you employ gestures and facial expressions, or do you have nervous man- nerisms? Do you rehearse the speech before presenting it to the audience?

Build your speaking ability block by block. Survey the landscape, prepare the foun- dation, create a skeletal structure, refine the appearance, and, finally, develop different types of structures. Learn from your mistakes, profit from your achievements, and effec- tively communicate to benefit yourself and others. When you develop the speech step by step, block by block, you will build a functional, pleasing structure.

Summary Communication, which is so important in our society, includes modern theories like the Shannon and Weaver communication model as well as a more recent communication model comprised of seven components: sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, setting, and noise. Recognize how the tools of communication have been used in our modern world and develop the ability to apply these tools in your daily speaking situations. The three objectives of this course will help you to: (1) evaluate speech situations; (2) plan, prepare, and organize speeches; and (3) effectively deliver speeches in front of an audience.

Skill Builders 1. Name an example of a good speaker you have heard in the past several weeks.

Describe the qualities that you feel made this person effective as a communicator. 2. Keep track of the communication process in your classroom, listing all the different

senders and receivers during one class period. What types of noise can you detect as you are recording this exercise?

Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter 1, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www.cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources give you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.

14 Chapter 1 • Introducing the Study of Public Speaking

CHAPTER

2UNDERSTANDING AND REDUCING YOUR APPREHENSION

Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1 Recognize that speech anxiety is common

2 Be aware of research into stress and communication apprehension

3 Adopt an eight-point plan for reducing speech apprehension

A student came to the speech instructor at the beginning of the semester with these worried comments: “I am so nervous when I get up in front of people that I freeze up—I can’t remember what I am going to say and I start to fumble with my words. I live in fear that I will try to open my mouth and nothing will come out. I’m really good with speaking in one-to-one situations and I would do fine if I could just give my speeches to you in an empty classroom or in your office.”

This student’s fear of speaking in public is shared by many Americans, as you will see in this chapter. The good news is that if you understand speech apprehension, you can begin to develop a program that helps to reduce its effect on your speaking presentations. In this chapter, we will survey the territory of speech anxiety: public speaking fears, research about anxiety, and ways to reduce your nervousness as you build your speeches.

“… if you’re the averageperson, if you have to be ata funeral, you would rather be in the casket than doing the eulogy.” —Jerry Seinfeld

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Speech Anxiety is Common

A student began his first classroom speech. His voice trembled, his mouth seemed parched, and his hands visibly shook as he presented the introduction. At one point, he tried to control his quivering hands by placing them in his pockets; but he started to rattle his change, calling even further attention to his stage fright. When he decided to make a gesture, he suddenly withdrew his hand from his pocket, spilling change all over the floor.

If you have ever felt this kind of anxiety or if you have ever lost sleep because you had to give a report in class or in front of an organization, you are normal. Several researchers have conducted studies to determine some of the greatest social fears among Americans. In a 1986 study of about 1,000 individuals, researchers discovered that peo- ple identified public speaking as their number one fear.1 Public speaking anxiety even outranked such fears as going to the dentist, heights, mice, and flying. In a study con- ducted in 1984, investigators asked 3,000 people to list situations that caused the most anxiety.2 Individuals ranked fear of public speaking as their second greatest anxiety and attending a party with strangers as their greatest social fear. Table 2.1 summarizes the fears identified in the survey.

Almost everyone experiences some type of anxiety about public speaking. Many celebrities have also experienced stage fright about public speaking or performance. Con- sider these examples:

• Actress Kim Basinger was unable to deliver her well-prepared acceptance speech for receiving the Best Supporting Actress award for her role in L.A. Confidential in 1998 because of her speech anxiety. Instead, she blurted out, “I just want to thank everybody I’ve ever met in my entire life.”

• During his American singing debut in 1981, a terrified Rod Stewart hid behind a stack of speakers when he sang his first song.

• While performing at a 1967 concert in Central Park, New York, Barbara Streisand forgot the lyrics to a song and was so traumatized by the disaster that she didn’t perform again in public for 27 years.

• Opera singer Andrea Bocelli has had performance anxiety all his life. He once responded in an interview, “The only way is to go onstage and hope.”

• Distinguished British actor Sir Lawrence Olivier had lost so much confidence in his acting abilities that in order to go on stage, he had to be pushed by the stage manager.3

TABLE 2.1 Ten Social Situations Causing Greatest Anxiety

Situation Percent

A party with strangers 74 Giving a speech 70 Being asked personal questions in public 65 Meeting a date’s parents 59 First day on a new job 59 Victim of a practical joke 56 Talking with someone in authority 53 Job interview 46 Formal dinner party 44 Blind date 42

Key Terms awfullizing communication

apprehension general adaptation

syndrome negative self-talk positive self-talk systematic

desensitization