Polygraph: Its Admissibility in Court.

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You will prepare and submit a term paper on Polygraph: Its Admissibility in Court. Your paper should be a minimum of 1250 words in length. The standard of polygraph was first addressed in US courts in 1923 (Frye v. the United States, 54, App DC 46,293F 1013[1923]) when the court refused to admit polygraph evidence in a murder case. The legal standard set by the court ruling popularly known as the Frye rule lasted for 70 years. The evidence to be admissible in court must have gained general acceptance in its scientific world.

Later in 1970 adoption of the Federal Rules of Evidence, Rule 702 set another standard for the scientific evidence to be admitted in courts if such specialized and technical knowledge could assist the court to understand the evidence or determine a fact in issue. .. The court changed the old law of admissibility based on scientific expert evidence and stated that the Frye test was not consistent with the Federal Rules of Evidence in the case of Daubert v. Merrill Dow Pharmaceuticals 148. The court altered the manner in which they evaluated the subject of ‘admissibility’ of scientific evidence that includes the use of polygraph evidence as well This opened the door for a polygraph to be admitted in the court proceedings as per the discretion of the court. Five factors were recommended for courts to be followed to weigh the evidence before admitting it in the trial process: 1. whether the theory or technique is testable or falsifiable 2. whether the method has been subjected to peer review, 3.whether the rate of error is too high. 4.the existence and maintenance of standards controlling the technique’s operation and 5.whether the method has received ‘general acceptance.

In course of application of the new guidelines by the court the polygraph results a). have been admitted on some occasions, b).have been considered inadmissible in some other occasions, and c). in many other cases have been admitted under certain specific conditions only. Apart from the standard set by the Supreme Court in the Daubert case, Federal Rule of Evidence 403 also is considered to be ‘standard’ that is to be cleared to prove evidence to be scientific. Following the adoption of the Federal Rules of Evidence and the Supreme Court’s decision the standard for admissibility of polygraph evidence in criminal cases changed. Those accepted and turned to polygraphs had to change their opinions.

What are three common encryption ciphers used to protect network communications, and what are the capabilities that they offer? Question B How does public key cry

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REPLY 1

Question A

What are three common encryption ciphers used to protect network communications, and what are the capabilities that they offer?

Question B

How does public key cryptography provide protection for network data? What are the major elements that enable it to provide this capability?

REFLECT AND REPLY TO CLASSMATE DISCUSSION TO BOTH OF THE ABOVE QUESTIONS EXPLAINING WHY YOU AGREE (MINIMUM OF 125 WORDS)

                                                  CLASSMATE’S DISCUSSION

Question A

The three common encryption ciphers used to protect network communications are monoalphabetic, polyalphabetic, and transposition cipher. A monoalphabetic substitution-based cipher replaces a character or group of characters with a different character or group of characters, (White, 2016). This type of cipher is simple. However, there is a disadvantage of the frequency of the substituting. The polyalphabetic substitution-based cipher is similar to the mono alphabetic cipher, but it uses multiple alphabetic strings to encode the plaintext, rather than one alphabetic string, (White, 2016). This type of cipher is better because it prevents a frequency analysis or algorithms from decoding easily. A transposition-based cipher is different from a substitution-based cipher in that the order of the plaintext is not preserved, (White, 2016). With the transposition cipher the character is moved but not changed.

Reference:

White, C. (2016). Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User’s Approach

(Independence, KY: Cengage Learnings ISBN: 9781305729902 8th ed.). 

Question B

Data encrypted with the public key can be decoded only with the public key, and data encrypted with the private key can be decoded only with the public key, (White, C. 2016). Public key cryptography provides protection to network data when one person or organization has either a key to code or decode. One end will have the public key that encrypts, and the other private key will decode the ciphertext.

Reply 2

Question A

What are three common encryption ciphers used to protect network communications, and what are the capabilities that they offer?

Question B

How does public key cryptography provide protection for network data? What are the major elements that enable it to provide this capability?

REFLECT AND REPLY TO CLASSMATE DISCUSSION TO BOTH OF THE ABOVE QUESTIONS EXPLAINING WHY YOU AGREE (MINIMUM OF 125 WORDS)

                                                   CLASSMATE’S DISCUSSION

Question A

Question A – Triple DES, AES ad RSA are the most common encryption ciphers.

Triple DES was a recommended encryption standard and at one point, used to be one of the most used symmetric algorithm in the industry. Triple DES uses three keys that are 56 bits each. Although total key length is supposed to be 168 bits, some argue they are 112 bits in strength. 

AES is the algorithm standard used by the US government and a good number of companies and organizations. AES comes in 128, 192, and 256 ciphers. AES is one of the most resilient encryption ciphers in the market today.

RSA is a public key encryption algorithm and the standard encryption for data sent over the internet. Those familiar with PGP will know that RSA is one of the encryption methods used in the program. This encryption algorithm is asymmetric, requiring a public key to encrypt the message and a private key to decrypt it.

Question B

Public cryptography works on the principle of using two keys, a public key and a private key to protect the data. The user of the technology receives a public/private key pair from a certified authority. When data is sent to other users, they have access to the public key from the sender, which has been used to encrypt the data. When the message arrives at its destination, the recipient can then use its private key to decrypt the message.

The major elements that support this system are the public/private key pairs, the certifying authority and the principle of public keys, which eliminates the need for users to exchange their private keys. 

Reference:

– Lord, N. (2018). A definition of public cryptography. Retrieved Jun 22, 2022 from  https://digitalguardian.com/blog/what-public-key-cryptography

Learning

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Reflective Journal (No less than 150 words).What caught your attention about this lesson and why?Assignment (No less than 300 words)Think of different, specific, examples of things you have learned through the types of conditioning discussed in this module.Explaining the behaviors you learned, and identify the key “components” and vocabulary of the learning, such as the UCS, UCR, CS, CR, positive or negative reinforcement, shaping, etc.Describe one example of something learned through classical conditioning.Describe one example of something learned through operant conditioning.Describe one example of something learned through observational learning or latent learning.Resoruces:Professor’s Lesson:*Focus preferably these 2 videos below:- https://app.vidgrid.com/view/uEKEyoXq2hLV/?sr=GMtkfU- https://app.vidgrid.com/view/wLHIbiFVoaKX/?sr=ZRCQTHAdditonal Resources:- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LSHWzOXJDSs&feature=youtu.be- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JA96Fba-WHk- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6LEcM0E0io

Discuss Divorce and Remarriages.

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Hi, need to submit a 2000 words paper on the topic Divorce and Remarriages. For the divorce option to be accepted the church need to consider the divorce’s ground according to scriptures. The main grounds for divorce according to the New Testament are on either desertion by an unbeliever or sexual sin features (Adams 1986, p.24).&nbsp.

These features comprise of sexual sin like homosexuality, incest, bestiality and adultery. In the case one of the partners violates the intimacy and unity of marriage by any of the sexual sins, thereby forsaking the covenant responsibility the faithful member is left in a very difficult situation. Under such condition, the bible permits the release of the faithful partner via divorce. After divorce has occurred the faithful partner is free to remarry if at all the divorce took place on biblical grounds. However, in case of people divorce on other grounds, they have sinned against both their partners and God. In mark 10:11-12, if these partners remarry, they will be considered to have committed an act of adultery. Paul made an explanation for this and proposed any person who divorces sinfully should remain unmarried for the rest of their life unless either of them reconciles with her or his partner (Cherlin 1992, p.54).

The Jesus’ teachings on the issues of divorce should be read repeatedly in both the church and at home. It should be done in every part of the world in the essence of spreading the gospel. The society has witnessed an increase in the number of remarriages and divorces in the present days. The main reason of this problem facing the society is that people tend to ignore the instructions that are provided in the bible. Some people also tend to listen to what other men think about the teachings of Jesus rather that reading for themselves in the bible (House & Laney 1990, p.76).&nbsp.