research paper on mph 504. Needs to be 2 pages.

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Need an research paper on mph 504. Needs to be 2 pages. Please no plagiarism. Screening for Diseases 5. If the OD ratio cutoff for tested positive is shifted from A to B the sensitivity will increase to the point where the all HIV infected individuals can be detected. Although the test become more effective in identifying the affected individuals same time it causes high number of false positives rate. This can lead to undesirable psychological, social and health problems when healthy individuals are misdiagnosed as HIV infected.

When the OD ratio cutoff for tested positive is shifted from A to C the test become highly specific and nearly all the false positives can be eliminated. However this also eliminates high number of HIV infected individuals due to reduced sensitivity causing undesirable social and health problems (such as risk of spreading the disease and delay for the treatment). To overcome the problems of both extremes A is the most suitable OD ratio to establish the cutoff.

6. Director of Blood Bank: HIV is a deadly disease with no cure. Therefore the intention of screening the donated blood samples against HIV is to totally protect blood receivers from being infected with HIV. Therefore director of Blood Bank has to set the cut off where he can eliminate almost all the HIV infected blood samples. In other words he has to attain 100% sensitivity. Thereby he has to draw the cutoff line for OD ratio at B eliminating the risk of possible false negatives. However this decision dramatically reduces the specificity by increasing the number of false positives. This leads to rejection of higher number of healthy blood samples.

Investigator: The investigator needs to select high risk HIV infected individuals to test the efficacy of his potentially toxic antiviral drug through a clinical trial. Since the antiviral drug is potentially toxic he has to select only HIV infected individuals without any false positives. Consequently he has to achieve 100% specificity eliminating all false positive. In doing so he should draw the cutoff line for OD ratio at C. However as a result of this decision he has to reject high number of HIV infected individual who tested negative due to low sensitivity resulted from the newly defined cutoff. This makes him recruit a larger sample (than expected) to get the required number of eligible participants.

Compose a 750 words assignment on classical vs. operants conditioning.

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Compose a 750 words assignment on classical vs. operants conditioning. Needs to be plagiarism free! Ivan Pavlov was the pioneer of classical conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to a process where a stimulus that brings out a reaction is learned to be related to another stimulus that does not initially bring out a reaction. In an experiment, Pavlov gives a signal whenever food is given to a starving dog. Pavlov rings a bell as a signal. Every time the dog recognized he would be fed, he drooled. After giving the signal several times each time food was given to the dog, Pavlov discovered that the dog drooled upon receiving the signal although no food was given. Thus, the dog has been conditioned into drooling every time when he heard the signal. Before the conditioning occurred, the dog had drooled whenever it received food, and Pavlov referred to the food as an ‘unconditioned stimulus’ and the reaction of the dog to the food as an ‘unconditioned response’. Pavlov referred to the bell or the signal as a ‘conditioned stimulus’ and ‘conditioned response’ when the dog drooled upon receiving the signal (Nicholas, 2009, pp. 117-119). On the other hand, B.F. Skinner pioneered the idea of operant conditioning. The term ‘operant’ suggests a behavior that has a certain degree of influence on the world. Depending on the result of the person’s behaviors, the likelihood may diminish or rise that he/she will repeat these behaviors. As expected, positive results are preferred over negative outcomes. individuals learn to take part in actions that elicit positive reactions and to keep away from those that could lead to negative results. Operant conditioning occurs through reward and punishment (Chan, 2004, p. 140). There are positive (reward) and negative (punishment) reinforcements, and both enhance the probability of the operant behavior. Classical and operant conditioning have strengths and weaknesses. The behaviorists apply these two approaches to understand a broad array of psychological trends or occurrences, from the learning processes to their outcomes like language learning and irrational fear. Furthermore, numerous practical uses of the two approaches were created, from animal instruction to human learning and the management of problematic or pathological behavior. In numerous instances these methods have been proven to be successful in generating behavioral change. However, classical and operant conditioning failed to consider the influence of cognitive and genetic variables in learning, and are hence imperfect or deficient descriptions of the animal and human learning mechanisms (Coon & Mitterer, 2008, pp. 233-234). By putting emphasis on only a small number of organisms like pigeons or guinea pigs and oversimplifying the findings, the behaviors not only disregarded the unique cognitive impacts on learning that various organisms display, such as the capacity of individuals to learn through imitation and observation (Coon & Mitterer, 2008, p. 235) but also notably disregarded the natural learning capacities that all organisms develop to adapt more successfully to their changing environment. However, even though classical and operant conditionings have their weaknesses, they are still relevant to counseling theory and practice.

 

Compose a 5000 words assignment on housing and construction cost escalation: a focused on saudi arabia.

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Compose a 5000 words assignment on housing and construction cost escalation: a focused on saudi arabia. Needs to be plagiarism free! Certain factors were evaluated and analyzed to identify the major reasons for the cost escalations in the housing and construction industry in KSA. The factors that were analyzed include economic factors, geographic factors, demographic factors, social factors, and other environmental factors to provide accurate and reliable information regarding the cost escalations in the KSA’s construction industry. In the end, some strategies are proposed that could help the KSA’s construction industry to reduce its construction and housing cost.

With UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, and Kuwait being a part of GCC, it was observed that construction contracts worth USD 50 billion were awarded to contractors in the very first quarter of 2011 (Deloitte, 2012a). The breakup of these contracts is given in the image below:

The Gulf Cooperating Council (GCC) flourished from the year 2003-2008 due to the spectacular increase in oil prices. With an increase in oil prices, the cost of construction also increased to about 60 percent particularly in Dubai (Meed Cost Indices, 2012a). In order to stabilize the economy to create a more balanced state, several projects were initiated with construction the major priority of GCC. The major hurdles for these projects were observed during the global economic crisis of 2008 where most of these initiated projects had to be canceled or kept on hold. However, with the recovery of the economy, it was predicted that the construction sector would be provided with outstanding growth opportunities in the forthcoming years (Meed Cost Indices, 2012a).

With the passage of time, the construction sector has shifted its focus from small and simple projects to more sophisticated and complex projects that require billions of dollars investment. Such projects involve complex civil work, electromechanical systems, and vital infrastructures to attract foreigners and investors.

Write a 4 pages paper on tools of monetary policy.

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Write a 4 pages paper on tools of monetary policy. The effect of increasing the discount rate on the money supply is shown below in diagram 1. In part (a), the demand for reserves is not high enough and as a result there are no changes in the equilibrium reserve holdings. In part (b) there is a high demand for reserves and as a consequence, there is a decline in the equilibrium reserve holdings. Figure 1: Impact of increases in the discount rate In the diagram above, there is an increase in the discount rate from to . Consequentially the supply of reserves schedule rises from to . However, observe that in part (a) the demand for reserves are lower than in part (b). In particular the demand for reserves schedule is not high enough in part (a) to substantiate any efficacy of increasing the discount rate. In fact in such a scenario, a decline in the discount rate could have an impact by increasing the equilibrium reserve holdings if the rate is lowered below the bank rate. However, this will make sense if the resulting effect of increased money supply is the desired result. As a result, albeit the increase in the discount rate leads to a rise in the supply of reserves, there is no change in the equilibrium holdings. Thus, there is no discount lending in this case. In part (b) the increase in the supply of reserves leads to a reduction in the equilibrium discount reserve holdings from R0 to R1. Note that in this case lowering the discount rate would have had an impact as well but of the opposite kind. Alternatively, the central banking authority of an economy has to right of denying or controlling the amount of loans directly. Thus it has a control over the money supply of the nation directly via a control over the sanctioning of discount loans. In particular, loans forwarded to financial institutions by the central banks belong to any of the following three classes: a) primary loans, b) secondary loans and c) seasonal loans. Primary loans are the credit supplies to healthy or financially stable banks or financial institutions. Secondary credits are the loans that are forwarded with a designated purpose only in which the credit accepting institution can put the loan in use. Finally, seasonal loans are the short term credit that is forwarded under discount rates generally to help institutions overcome temporary liquidity shortages and emergencies. Thus by controlling the amount of reserves financial institutions have, the central bank can restrict the amount of money supply in the economy. How may central Bank help prevent bank panics by acting as a lender of last resort? Support your answer using examples of such events. Bank runs or panic runs to the bank are caused by the fear that the bank will become insolvent and will fail to return the amount of deposits. The central problem is that this has a cascading effect and actually becomes a self fulfilling prophesy since as the number of people withdrawing their funds increases, the liquidity of the bank decreases. Further with the number of withdrawals rising, other customers fearing insolvency also begin withdrawing their own deposits. Since banks never hold all of the depositors’ money as reserves at any point of time, if a large number of customers begin withdrawing all their funds, the bank does become insolvent fast.