Write a five to six (5-6) page paper in which you:
(Note: Refer to Chapter 6 Review Question 4 for criterion 1.)

Construct constitutive and operational definitions for any three (3) of the actions and outcome variables listed in the shaded box under Review Question 1 at the end of Chapter 6. (Note: The box includes Program expenditure, Equality of educational opportunity, Energy consumption, etc.)

(Note: Refer to Chapter 6 Review Question 5 for criterion 2.)

Identify three (3) policy problems listed in the shaded box under Review Question 5 and determine an appropriate indicator or index that would help determine whether each of the identified problems are being solved through government action. Justify your position on each. (Note: The box includes Work alienation, School dropouts, etc.)

(Note: Refer to Chapter 6 Review Question 13 for criterion 3.)

Construct valid rebuttals to the following argument using at least four (4) threats to validity: (B) The greater the cost of an alternative, the less likely it is that the alternative will be pursued. (W) The enforcement of the maximum speed limit of 55 mph increases the costs of exceeding the speed limit. (I) The mileage death rate fell from 4.3 to 3.6 deaths per 100 million miles after the implementation of the 55-mph speed limit. (C) The 55-mph speed limit (National Speed Law of 1973) has been definitely successful in saving lives.
Include at least two (2) peer-reviewed references (no more than five [5] years old) from material outside the textbook to support your views. Note:Appropriate peer-reviewed references include scholarly articles and governmental Websites. Do not use open source Websites such as Wikipedia, Sparknotes.com, Ask.com, and similar Websites are not acceptable resources.

Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:

Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.

The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:

Examine the nature, characteristics, models, and / or methods pertinent to the structuring of policy problems.
Compare and contrast approaches and / or techniques for prescribing preferred policies.
Evaluate policy outcomes by applying a variety of methods and techniques.
Use technology and information resources to research issues in policy analysis and program evaluation.
Write clearly and concisely about policy analysis and program evaluation using proper writing mechanics.

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THIS IS A DISCUSSION RESPONSE NO MORE THAN 200 WORDS IN-TEXT CITATIONS APA STYLE.

Pain is referred to as an emotional or sensory response of the body to both impending and real damage to its tissues. Pain has different manifestations associated with the injuries to tissues, for example, hyperalgesia, which is an overstated noxious stimulus-response. Once an injury occurs, nerve cell endings called nociceptors, respond to the unpleasant stimuli by conveying the rapid and urgent signal that something is wrong. This message triggers a nociception process, in which chemicals are released and in turns increases the pain signal (Huether & McCance, 2017). During, chronic pain spontaneous, Allodynia, or hyperalgesia occur from alterations in the central or peripheral nervous systems (Huether & McCance, 2017). Referred or visceral pain is pain perceived in an area other than that in which the noxious stimulation takes place that is often perceived in somatic nerve and spinal nerve root distribution (Huether & McCance, 2017).

Differences and Similarities between Acute, Referred, and Chronic Pain

Acute pain is immediate pain resulting from mishaps or physical trauma. Acute pain acts as an alert to indicate to the affected person that there is damage to the body somewhere. Chronic pain is long-term and enduring in nature. The pain, therefore, persists even after healing of the affected tissues. Therefore, unlike acute pain which warns of damage, the chronic pain does not pass any significant message. On the other hand, referred pain affects a tissue which is not its actual source (Alzheimer’s Association, 2016). Therefore, unlike the acute and chronic pain, one may not tell which tissues are being or already damaged. The similarities between these types of pain are the fact that they cause discomforts which can translate into physiological effects. These pains can be to some extent be alleviated with some form of pain relievers.

Behavior and Gender in Relation to Pain

Gender is one factor that plays a role in the treatment for acute, chronic and referred pain. Women report more frequent, severe and persistent pain levels when compared to men (Alzheimer’s Association, 2016). Women are more likely to experience pain during childbirth and mensuration. Therefore, this will have an impact on the diagnosis and treatment of pain since women are better at describing the sensation. On the other hand, behaviors like usage or drugs like heroin, tobacco, and even alcohol consumption may tamper with the pain sensors; hence a reduced awareness of pain, therefore, interferes with the diagnosis and even treatment (McPhee & Hammer, 2019).

The pain sensation is a usual bodily response to disease or even injuries which result from processes in the nociceptive system. Pain has a crucial protective function biologically, with complex phases, and can be affected by gender and behavior.

References

Alzheimer’s Association. (2016). Help end Alzheimer’s. Retrieved, from http://www.alz.org/

Huether, S. E., & McCance, K. L. (2017). Understanding pathophysiology (Laureate custom ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.

McPhee, S. J., & Hammer, G. D. (2019). Pathophysiology of disease: An introduction to clinical

medicine (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Medical

(n.d.). Acute Pain vs. Chronic Pain. Retrieved from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/12051-acute-vs-chronic-pain

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