1200 Words And Three Scholarly References

Laura A.Freberg

John T. Cacioppo University of Chicago

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California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

Discovering Psychology

The Science of Mind

9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

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Discovering Psychology: The Science of Mind John T. Cacioppo and Laura A. Freberg

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9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

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Taste buds contained in the papillae of the tongue are far more responsive to bitter tastes than to sweet tastes.

9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

 

 

The Science of Mind

The Discipline of Psychology

1 Explain the subject matter that psychologists study, addressing the meaning of mind and psychology’s role as a hub science.

2 Analyze the respective contributions of philosophy and the physical sciences as the “roots” of modern psychology.

3 Compare and contrast the early movements in psychology—structuralism, Gestalt psychology, functionalism, behaviorism, psychodynamic theory, and humanism—in terms of leading figures, core principles, and contributions to modern psychology.

4 Differentiate the seven major perspectives of modern psychology in terms of typical research questions, research methods, and focal causes of behavior.

5 Analyze the ways in which the seven major perspectives can be integrated to address a single psychological problem or topic.

6 Explain why psychology’s role as a “hub science” allows psychologists to pursue a wide range of career paths with respect to professional specialties and research areas.

Learning Objectives

3

Studying the science of psychology can lead you to see yourself and other people in completely new

ways. A lifetime of observation teaches us many things about our own behavior and about the behavior of others,

but psychological science can uncover new and exciting explanations for behavior that we otherwise might miss. Let’s begin with a seemingly simple and familiar example: our ability to taste. We all know a lot about taste—what we like or dislike, the different qualities of taste, and so on. You might even be aware that some

types of taste seem stronger than others. Most of us can taste sweetness in a solution of one part sugar in 200

parts water; this ability shows an impressive taste

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psychology s role as a hub science.

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9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

 

 

Chapter 1 4

Introspection is the personal observation of our own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Because we are not perfect observers of the operations of our own minds, psychologists developed other methods that provide truly scientific insight into the mind. In this functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan, areas of the brain that were activated when the participant was hungry are highlighted. Through technology, researchers can better understand how the brain regulates hunger. From D. Fuhrer, S. Zysset, & M. Stumvoll, “Brain

Activity in Hunger and Satiety: An

Exploratory Visually Stimulated fMRI

Study,” in Obesity (2008) 16: 945–950.

© Nature Publishing Group.

sensitivity, to be sure. As remarkable as this sensitivity appears to be, however, people can detect one part bitter substance (like quinine) in 2 million parts water. This contrast in taste sensitivity between sweet and bitter does not reflect the actual difference between sweet and bitter sub- stances—that is, bitter tastes are not 10,000 times stronger than sweet tastes, but that is how we experience them. Why would we have such a vast difference in sensitivity between these tastes?

Our observations of taste do not help us out much in answering this question, but psychology can. As it turns out, our greater sensitivity to bit- ter tastes is highly adaptive: Most poisons or toxins taste bitter, and if you want to stay alive, it is more important to avoid swallowing poison than to enjoy something sweet. Being far more sensitive to tastes that are bitter is a trait that has served our species well, because it helps us avoid eating things that could potentially kill us. Psychology helps us understand why

we do the things we do by providing a context for understanding behavior. To gain that understanding, psychology has to act like the zoom feature in Google Earth. In some parts of this textbook, we will be zooming in on human behaviors, like looking at the highly magnified image at the beginning of the chapter of the tongue, which allows us to taste, and tracing the messages about taste sent from the tongue to the brain. At other times, we’ll zoom back out again to take in the

larger picture, to better understand why the boy on the previous page is giv- ing his bitter-tasting broccoli a skeptical look. Psychologists zoom in to the study of the mind using in-depth per- spectives, which we will be describing in this chapter. For example, we can look at the little boy’s reaction to his broccoli from a developmental perspective, which tells us that taste sensitivity decreases over the life- span. Or, using the social perspective, we can think about social influences like culture on food preferences. Cottage cheese, enjoyed by many Ameri- cans, is viewed with disgust in some other parts of the world. Fruit bat pie, a delicacy in Palau, might not be a popular item for a campus dining facility in the United States. Although single perspectives can tell us a lot about a phenomenon like our sensitivity to bitter tastes, no one perspective can give us a com- plete answer. The best view of all comes from zooming back out again by putting multiple perspectives together into a whole. You can learn a lot about your house from Google Earth by zooming in, but when you see how your home fits into the larger scene of city, state, country, and planet, that viewpoint adds something special to your understanding. We’ll start by learning more about psy- chology’s main perspectives, along with a little background about their origins. At that point, we’ll be in a better position to understand how these perspectives come together to give us the big picture.

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Psycychoholologig sttss zozooom iinn to tthehe stuudydy oof f ththe e mmindd uusingng iin-n-dedeptthh peperr spectives, which we will be describing in this chapter. For example, w can lookok at the little boyy’s reaction to hhisis broccoli from aa developmen perspeecttive,, wwhihichch ttelellsls uuss ththat tasastete senensittivivityty ddececrereasaseseses over the life span. OrOr, usining g hthe sosociciaal ppeerspecectivve, wewe ccann thihinkk aabobout social influe like culultuturere onn fofo dod pprereffererenncess. Coottttagagee chcheesese, ennjojoyeyed by many Am cans is viewed with disgust in some other parts off ththee world Fruit ba

9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

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WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 5

What Is Psychology? The study of the mind is as fascinating as it is complex. Psychological sci- entists view the mind as a way of talking about the brain and its activities, including thought, emotion, and behavior. A quick look at this textbook’s table of contents will show you the variety of approaches to mind that you will encounter along this voyage, such as the thinking mind (cognitive psy- chology) and the troubled mind (abnormal psychology).

The word psychology is a combination of two Greek words: psyche (or psuche), or “soul,” and logos, “the study of.” For the ancient Greeks, the use of the word “soul” was closer to our modern view of a spirit or mind. Logos is the source of all our “ologies,” such as biology, anthropology, and so on. Literally translated, therefore, psychology means “the study of the mind.”

Contemporary definitions of psychology refine this basic meaning. Most psychologists today define their field as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes—that is, the scientific study of the mind.

The phrase behavior and mental processes has undergone several changes over the history of psychology. Behavior refers to any action that we can observe. As we will see in our chapter on research methods, obser- vation has been an important tool for psychologists from the very early days of the discipline. Notice, too, that our definition does not specify whose behavior is to be examined. Although the bulk of psychology focuses on human behavior, animal behavior has been an essential part of the dis- cipline, both for its own sake and for the sake of comparison with human behavior.

The study of mental processes has been highly dependent on the meth- ods available to psychologists. Early efforts to study mental processes were generally unsatisfactory, as they relied on the use of introspection, or the personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Because it is difficult for others to confirm an individual’s introspections, this subjective approach does not lend itself well to the scientific method. If you say that you are feeling hungry, how can anyone else really know if your observation is accurate or not? In the last 30 years, however, revolutions in the methods used to observe brain activity have allowed psychologists to revisit the question of mental processes with much greater objectivity and success.

As you learn more about psychology, some conclusions will seem obvi- ous to you. After all, we already know a great deal about the mind from our own experiences. In other cases, the conclusions of psychological research might challenge your firmly held beliefs. You may be surprised to learn that having a “good cry” can make you feel worse instead of better, or that people are less likely to come to another person’s aid when they are part of a crowd of observers than when they are the only ones available to help. Sometimes, we even believe ideas that contradict each other. Everyone knows that opposites attract and that birds of a feather flock together. It takes the science of psychology to determine when and under what condi- tions these beliefs are actually correct.

mind The brain and its activities, including thought, emotion, and behavior.

psychology The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

introspection Personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

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